CURRENT SCENARIO IN

ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS

• Competition is introduced in the
Electric Power Industry by having
more Generating Companies
(GENCO’s) and Distribution
Companies (DISCO’S).
• Large Scale Integration of Renewable
Energy Sources.
 REQUIREMENTS FOR USING
FACTS DEVICES
• INCREASE THE TRANSMISSION CAPACITY
OF EXISTING LINES(LOAD THEM UPTO THE
THERMAL LIMITS).
• CONTROL POWER FLOWS IN SPECIFIC
LINES.
• ASSURANCE OF SYSTEM RELIABILITY IN
THE EVENT OF FAULTS.
• POSSIBLE THROUGH FLEXIBLE A.C.
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS.
 FACTS
• Flexibility of Electric Power Transmission
The ability to accommodate changes in the electric
transmission system or operating conditions while
maintaining sufficient steady state and transient
margins.
• Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)
Alternating current transmission systems incorporating
power-electronic based and other static controllers to
enhance controllability and increase power transfer
capability.
 POWER TRANSFER AND
STABILITY ISSUES
Power Transfer Limit
Voltage Limit Thermal Limit

Small Signal Transient

Stability Stability
Stability
Limit

Voltage
Stability
 FACTS CONTROLLERS

FACTS

Shunt Series
SVC TCSC
STATCOM SSSC

oSeries-Shunt
Series-Shunt

IPFC
UPFC
 PRESENTATION OVERVIEW

• SVC CONFIGURATION
• V/I CHARACTERISTICS
• VOLTAGE CONTROL ACTION
• APPLICATIONS OF SVC
 STATIC VAR SYSTEMS
• “static” = no moving or rotating parts

Definition
• A static var system (SVS) is an aggregation of static var
compensators (defined below) and mechanically
switched capacitors or reactors whose outputs are
coordinated..

• Capability: controlling individual phase voltages of the

buses to which they are connected and hence, can be
used to control unbalances.
 CLASSIFICATION OF
STATIC VAR SYSTEMS
SVS

SVC
MSC/MSR

SVG
SVA

TCR+FC TSC SCC/LCC

TCR TCT TSR

SR

SVS: Static Var Systems, MSC: Mechanically switched capacitors, MSR: Mechanically switched
Reactor, SVC: Static Var Compensator, SVG: Static Var Generators, SVA: Static Var Absorbers,
TCR: Thyristor – Controlled Reactor, TSC: Thyristor – switched capacitor, SCC/LCC: Self or line
– commutated converter, SR : Saturable Reactor, TCR: Thyristor–controlled Reactor, FC:Fixed
Capacitor, TCT: Thyristor – controlled transformer, TSR: Thyristor – Switched Reator
SHUNT COMPENSATION
 SHUNT COMPENSATION: STATIC VAR
SYSTEMS

• SVS example : variable L plus fixed C

V
↓IS
V V
C
↓ IL +
L ↓ IC

• Steady state characteristics:

IL =BLmin V Current limiting

V Current limiting V V

IC =-BC V 2e
2e
IL =BLmax V
Slope= XSL +
(BLmax–BC )V
(BLmin –BC )V

IL IC IS
 V QL =BLmin V2 V V (BLmax –BC )V2
(BLmin –BC )V2
2e 2e
+ BC V2
QL =BLmax V2

QL QLAG
QC
QLEAD

Usually the current is limited as shown by the vertical line

• Equation:
V = V0 + XSL . IS

• XSL = reactance that is equal to the slope of the characteristic in the

control range.
 Steady-State Voltage Regulation

jXTh Is

 System
ETh Equivalent Variable reactive
load

 Substation Voltage Characteristic: Capacitive

to Inductive V V ETh

Is ETh
Is

ETh V

Is

0 Inductive
Capacitive
• The effect of changing system conditions:
1
V 1 V

2
2 ETh + ETh
E Th
Increasing XTh
ETh - ETh

0 Is 0 Is

• Equation
V = ETh - XTh IS
• Composite Characteristic: SVC + System at the SVC Location

V1
B
V3 SVS
V0 characteristic
C
Slope = XSL V4
System
V2 characteristics
D E
FF G
IS
Capacitive I4 0 I3
Inductive
 SINGLE PHASE TCR
• Variation from BLmin to BLmax achieved by varying the period of
conduction of the thyristor. Firing angle of the gate pulses
determines the conduction angle or the duration of the current.
TYPICAL TCR CURRENT WAVEFORMS

0° 90° α = 90°, σ =180°

α = 120°, σ =120°
120°
σ

150°
α= 150°, σ =60°

σ = 2(π-α)
• Thyristor Controlled Reactor Current Equation
� 2V
� (cosa - cos wt );a �
wt �
a +s
�X
i(t ) = � L
�
�0;a + s �wt �
a +p
�

• Fourier analysis of the current equation given above for TCR

gives I = V (s - sin s )
1 X p
L

• The expression for the susceptance as a function of the

conduction angle
• I (s - sin s )
B (s ) = 1 =
L V pX
L

2(p - a ) + sin 2a
B (a ) =
L p XL
 Max and Min BL
• Max for α = 90° , i.e for full conduction and Minimum for α = 180°,
which corresponds to zero current.

B (MAX)=B (900 )= 1 ;
L L X
L
B (MIN)=B (1800 )=0;
L L

• The control of susceptance through control of α is called phase

control.
• TCR requires a control system which determines the firing
instants (α) from the last zero crossing of the voltage
(synchronization of firing angles).
• The control system can be made to respond directly to deviation
in susceptance or deviation or auxiliary stabilizing signals.
• Fundamental Steady-State Voltage-Current Characteristic

Current
limiting
V(pu) s =0°
90° 130° 150°

s =180°

Vref =1.0 XSL I1

I1(pu)

Note: σ = Conduction angle s = 2 (p - a )

As before
V = Vref + XSL I1
 HARMONICS
• Note: As the firing angle increases the current waveform becomes
more distorted
– increasing the harmonic content.
• For single-phase configuration considered, with
symmetrical firing of thyristors only odd harmonics
are generated.
• Firing angles between 0° and 90° produce
asymmetrical current with DC component and
hence, are not allowed.
• For three-phase, three single-phase TCR elements
are connected in delta (6-pulse arrangement).
This eliminates the triplen (3,6,9,…..) harmonics.
in the line current.
 THREE-PHASE SIX PULSE
ARRANGEMENT
a
b
c

Firing angle Vref

controller
T

T
V

T T: Back-to-back
• Dynamic Response thyristor unit

• Typical: 5 to 10 milliseconds.
• Additional delays introduced by the measuring and control circuits
(see diagram below)
• Some times response rate limited to ensure control loop stability
resulting in a response time of 1 to 5 cycles (20 ms to 100 ms)
THYRISTOR SWITCHED
CAPACITOR(TSC)
 TSC
• The thyristor switch acts as to connect or
disconnect the capacitor for an integral no
of half cycles of the ac applied voltage.
The capacitor is not phase controlled. It is
simply on or off. Because of this the TSC
does not produce harmonic distortion.
 TSC
• The capacitor voltage is not equal to the
supply voltage when the thyristors are
fired. Immediately after closing the switch
current of infinite magnitude flows and
charges the capacitor to the supply
voltage. The switch realized by thyristors
would not withstand this stress and would
fail.
SVS (TCR+FC) SINGLE LINE
DIAGRAM

Vref
SVC CONTROL SYSTEM

V2
Vm Measuring
circuit

VRMAX
+ HV bus
VR BL LV bus
BSVS
VREF - Verr
Voltage
 TCR  Interface
regulator
+
+ - BC V1 V2
Other VRMIN
Signals
 V/Q CHARACTERISTICS
Current limiting
V V

(BLmax –BC )V (BLmax –BC )V2

–BC V
–BC V 2

IS QLAG
QLEAD

• Practical Considerations
• In a practical situation, LV bus - 33 kV bus, HV bus - 220 kV bus.
• In an industrial environment, while considering the application of
TCR+FC
– Must be ensured that no resonance with system impedance
occurs at the significant harmonics generated by the SVC.
– Filters provided: capacitive and generate reactive power of
about 10 to 30% of the TCR reactive power rating.
– Prolonged depressed voltage (typically below 0.3 p.u) may result
in loss of power to control circuit and gate circuitry which will
result in shut down of the SVC. Transient voltage dips, however,
will not cause shut down.
V/I CHARACTERISTICS
ADVANTAGES OF SLOPE IN SVC
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC
 ADVANTAGES OF SLOPE IN SVC
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC
• Substantially reduces the reactive power
rating of the SVC.
• Prevents SVC from reaching reactive
power limits too frequently.
PRACTICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
• In a practical situation, LV bus - 33 kV bus, HV bus - 220 kV bus.
• In an industrial environment, while considering the application of
TCR+FC
– Must be ensured that no resonance with system impedance
occurs at the significant harmonics generated by the SVC.
– Filters provided: capacitive and generate reactive power of
about 10 to 30% of the TCR reactive power rating.
– Prolonged depressed voltage (typically below 0.3 p.u) may result
in loss of power to control circuit and gate circuitry which will
result in shut down of the SVC. Transient voltage dips, however,
will not cause shut down.
 SVC AT
CHAKRAPUR,KANPUR
MODELLING OF SVC FOR
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
 MODELLING OF SVC FOR
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
• The control range of an SVC is defined as
Imin <Isvc <Imax;Vmin <Vsvc<Vmax
.

• Within this control range the SVC is represented as an

auxilliary bus with P=0 and V=Vref. A reactance equal to
the slope of the SVC V/I characteristic is added between
the auxiliary node and the node coupling it to the system.
 MODELLING OF SVC FOR
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
• The SVC is represented as shunt element
with susceptance (jB).Depending on the
operating point B is defined as:
• If V<Vmin :B=1/Xc :
• If V>Vmax: B=-1/XL:
MODELLING OF SVC FOR
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
POWER INJECTION MODEL
 STEADY STATE POWER TRANSFER
• THE SMIB SYSTEM WITH SVC CONNECTED AT THE MIDPOINT
V1 V∞
P
E’ Infinite Bus
jX1
Is jX2
SVC

• TWO MODES OF CONTROL: CONSTANT VOLTAGE CONTROL,

POWER SYSTEM DAMPING ENHANCEMENT
• POWER TRANSFER UNDER CONSTANT (MIDPOINT) VOLTAGE
CONTROL (IDEAL SVC)
V Vm
P = 1 sin  / 2
X /2
If voltages are equal

Without SVC

Note: Pmax doubles

SVC – STEADY STATE POWER TRANSFER
 SVC – STEADY STATE
POWER TRANSFER
• REACTIVE POWER REQUIREMENT TO MAINTAIN CONSTANT
VOLTAGE AT MIDPOINT.

4V 2� �
Q = 1 - COS
SVC X �
� 2 �
�

• For 2Pmax ,Qsvc=4Pmax! Not Economically Feasible.

TRANSIENT STABILITY
ENHANCEMENT
POWER ANGLE CURVE
:WITHOUT SVC
POWER ANGLE CURVE WITH
SVC
POWER OSCILLATION
DAMPING
• The power transfer capacity along a
transmission line is limited by the following
factors.
• Thermal Limit.
• Steady State Stability Limit.
• Transient Stability Limit.
• Electrical Damping Limit.
SVC CONTROL FOR POWER
OSCILLATION DAMPING
• Consider the Single Machine Infinite Bus
(SMIB) system: The SVC regulates the
midpoint voltage to Vm .

V = V sin(wt +  )
1 1
Vm = Vm sin(wt + )
2
V�= V�sin(wt +  )
SVC CONTROL FOR POWER
OSCILLATION DAMPING
• The real power transferred through the
line is VVm � �
P = sin � �
E 2 �2 �
• An incremental Change in electric power
is obtained by linearizing the above
equation
��PE � ��PE � �� PE �
P = � � V + � �Vm + � � 
E �
V �Vm � 
� � � � � �
 SVC CONTROL FOR POWER
OSCILLATION DAMPING
• If the sending end voltage is assumed
constant, then ΔV=0.Substituting the
equation for ΔPE in
d 2 ( )
M = -P
dt 2 E
results in
d 2 ( ) � P �P
M + E Vm + E  = 0
dt 2 �
Vm �
 SVC CONTROL FOR POWER
OSCILLATION DAMPING
• The effect of SVC is represented in the
middle term � PE � �
��
�
� Vm �
�
��
� Vm � �
• If the SVC is operated to maintain the
midpoint voltage strictly constant,ΔVm=0.
d 2 ( ) ��
PE �
M +� �  = 0
dt 2 �� �
 SVC CONTROL FOR POWER
OSCILLATION DAMPING
• The characteristic equation corresponding
to the above equation is:
2 1 �
P
E  = 0
s +
M �
0
• The roots of the above equation lie on the
imaginary axis which result in undamped
oscillations in the rotor angle δ with a
frequency of
1 ��
PE �
wn = � �
M �� �0
 SVC CONTROL FOR POWER
OSCILLATION DAMPING
• The SVC operating in pure voltage control mode is
ineffective to damp the low frequency oscillations. Hence
the midpoint voltage ΔVm can be modulated as a function
of d(Δδ)/dt.
d ( )
Vm = k
dt
• Substituting the above expression results in
d 2 ( ) � P d (  ) �P
M + E k + E  = 0
dt 2 �Vm dt �
0 0
 SVC CONTROL FOR POWER
OSCILLATION DAMPING
• The corresponding characteristic equation is

S 2 + 2z s + wn2 = 0
• where the damping ratio z is
K � P
E
z=
2M � Vm
• With the introduction of voltage modulation control the
SVC transforms the power system into a positively
damped system.
d ( ) ; f
dt
SVC CONTROL FOR POWER
OSCILLATION DAMPING
 SVC CONTROL FOR POWER
OSCILLATION DAMPING

oVref BL
 EMERGING FACTS CONTROLLERS

• STATCOM (STATIC SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR)

• SHUNT CONTROLLER
• SSSC (STATIC SYNCHRONOUS SERIES COMPENSATOR)
• SERIS CONTROLLER
• UPFC ( UNIVERSAL POWER FLOW CONTROLLER)
• SHUNT+SERIES
• EMERGING FACTS CONTROLLERS ARE BASED ON GTO
THYRISTORS THAT ARE SELF-COMMUTATING
 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR

• STATCOM VERSUS SVC

– In the linear operating range V-I characteristics are similar

– Functional compensation capability are similar

– But STATCOM: converter based var generator that functions as a

shunt connected voltage source; SVC: shunt connected controlled
reactive admittance. This operational difference (voltage source
versus reactive admittance) accounts for STATCOM’s overall
superior functional characteristics, better performance and greater
application flexibility
V-I CHARACTERISTICS

Transient Rating

STATCOM SVC
 V-Q CHARACTERISTICS

V
Transient
Transient Rating
Rating

QC
QC QCmax QLmax QL

STATCOM SVC
ADVANTAGES OF STATCOM

• STATCOM can be operated over its full output current range even at very
low system voltage level or max capacitive and inductive current can be
maintained independently of ac system voltage and max var changes
linearly with the ac system voltage

• STATCOM more compact because of the capability to provide max

compensating current at reduced system voltage

• Higher Transient stability margin

• Faster response
SINGLE-LINE DIAGRAM AND
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
• The exchange of reactive power between the
converter and the AC system controlled by varying
ESTATCOM .
• ESTATCOM > Et a current from flows from the converter
to the AC system and the converter supplies
capacitive-reactive power to the AC system.
• ESTATCOM < Et converter absorbs the reactive power
from the AC system.
• In the presence of DC energy source, adjustment of
phase shift between converter output voltage and AC
system voltage can control real power exchange.
STATIC SYNCHRONOUS
SERIES COMPENSATOR

Iload
STATIC SYNCHRONOUS
SERIES COMPENSATOR
– Series-connected

– Varies effective line impedance by injection of

fundamental frequency voltage at an appropriate
phase angle in relation to the line current.

– Depending upon the phase angle the SSSC can

exchange more or less active/reactive power.

– Main advantage of SSSC over TCSC is its ability to

modulate the line resistance thereby enhancing the
damping of the power oscillations.
 V-I CHARACTERISTICS

VLmax

VCmax
VC

SSSC TCSC
 SSSC VS TCSC
• SSSC: voltage source converter type; TCSC: variable impedance type

• Both highly effective in line power flow control

• SSSC can generate controllable internal voltage over identical capacitive

and inductive range independently of line current. TCSC can maintain
maximum compensating voltage with decreasing line current

• SSSC has inherent ability to interface with an external DC power

supply to provide compensation to line resistance/reactance by
injection of real/reactive power; not possible with TCSC

• SSSC with energy storage (or sink) increases the effectiveness of power
oscillation damping by:(i) modulating series reactive compensation to
increase/decrease transmitted power, (ii) concurrently injecting an
alternating virtual positive and negative real impedance to absorb and supply
real over from the line
SSSC VS TCSC CONTINUED
• TCSC employs conventional thyristors (most rugged semiconductors);
high current and voltage ratings surge current capability possible;
suitable for short-term bypass operation for protection of capacitors
during faults. SSSC uses GTO thyristors with relatively low voltage and
current ratings and considerably lower short term surge current rating.
May require external fast protection (MOV or thyristor switch) during
severe line faults

• TCSC coupled directly to transmission line installed on a high voltage

platform.; cooling system and control located on the ground with
insulation and control interface. SSSC requires a coupling transformer
(rated at 0.5 p.u of total series var compensating range) and a DC
storage capacitor. They are installed in a building at ground potential
and operated at low voltage (typically 20 kV). They need lower
insulation
 UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER (UPFC)

• SINGLE-LINE DIAGRAM
 UPFC
• Converter 1 is a shunt-connected converter and its main
purpose is to supply real power to the series-connected
converter 2.
• The real power supplied by converter 1 obtained from
transmission line. The capacitor bank acts as a common
DC voltage source for both the converters.
• Converter 1 functions like a STATCOM and it
independently regulates the terminal voltage of the AC
bus by generating/absorbing required amount of reactive
power.
• The DC bus voltage is maintained constant by converter
1 and hence the net real power drawn from the line is
equal to the sum of losses in the converters and the
coupling transformers.
 UPFC
• The series converter injects a voltage,
whose magnitude and phase angle with
respect to line current are variable, in
series with the transmission line. This
facilitates exchange of both real and
reactive power with the transmission line.
The real power generation/absorption is
made feasible by the dc energy storage
device (capacitor) and reactive power is
internally generated or absorbed.
STABILITY ENAHNCEMENT CAPABILITIES OF
DIFFERENT FACTS CONTROLLERS
 REFERENCES
• R.Ramanujam ,Power System Dynamics Analysis and
Simulation, PHI,2013
• Prabha Kundur,Power System Stability and Control, Tata
Mcgraw Hill,1994.
• R.Mohan Mathur,Rajiv.K.Varma,Thyristor Based FACTS
controllers for Electrical Transmission
Systems,Wiley,2002.
• N.Senthil Kumar , M.Abdullah Khan, “Impact of FACTS
controllers on the dynamic stability of power systems
connected with Wind Farms”, International Journal on
Wind Engineering, Vol.32, No.2, 2008, pp.128-141