CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

 How does the researcher

answer the questions in
Chapter I?
CHAPTER 111
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

 Research Design
 Research Locale
 Population and Sampling Design
 Ethical Considerations
 Data Gathering Tools
 Validity and Reliability of Instrument
 Data Gathering Procedure
 Statistical Treatment
RESEARCH DESIGN

3
 RESEARCH DESIGN

 RESEARCH DESIGN refers to the plan,

structure, and strategy of research--
the blueprint that will guide the
research process.

4
RESEARCH DESIGN
 It is a plan or course of action
which the research follows in order
to answer the research questions or
solve the research problem.
 It becomes the basis for determining
what data will be collected, and how
they will be analysed and
interpreted.
CLASSIFYING RESEARCH
 Two helpful ways to view research
Purpose
 The degree of direct applicability of
research to educational practices and
settings
Method
 The overall strategies followed to collect
and analyze data
Obj. 3.1, 3.2 & 3.5
 CLASSIFYING RESEARCH
BY
RESEARCH METHOD

 Quantitative Research: Collection of numerical data for

the purpose of
 Explaining
 Predicting and/or
 Controlling a phenomenon of interest

 Qualitative Research: Collection, analysis of non-

numerical data for the purpose of gaining insights into a
particular phenomenon of interest
THERE ARE MANY METHODS
OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH.
Case Study Correlational

Survey Descriptive

Narrative Mixed Causal-Comparative

Grounded Theory
Experimental
Ethnographic
Single Subject

Qualitative Quantitative

Educational Research 8
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

 Quantitative research – is the

traditional, positivist scientific method
which refers to a general set of
orderly, disciplined procedures to
acquire information.
 It utilizes deductive reasoning to
generate predictions that are tested in
the real world
WHEN SHOULD I USE A
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD?
 When the research problem is a description
of trends or an explanation of the
relationship among variables.
QUANTITATIVE METHODS
 Correlational: Collection of data to determine, if and to what extent a
relationship exists between two or more quantitative variables
 Ex. To what degree does parental involvement in school relate to increased
student achievement.
 Descriptive: Determines and reports on the way things are. Collects
data to test hypotheses or answer questions about the current status of
the subject study.
 Ex. Pre-election political poll or survey about public perceptions of their schools
 Causal/Comparative: Attempt to determine the cause or reason for
existing differences in the behavior or status of groups of individuals.
 Ex. The effect of preschool attendance on social maturity at the end of first
grade.
 Independent variable (cause) students attending preschool and not attending
 Dependent variable (effect) difference in social maturity between the groups

Educational Research 11
QUANTITATIVE METHODS, CONT.
 Experimental: At least one independent variable is manipulated,
other relevant variables are controlled (impact reduced) and the
effect on one or more dependent variables is observed.
 Ex. The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude towards school.
 Independent variable: type of reinforcement (positive, negative, no
reinforcement)
 Dependent variable: attitude towards school
 Single-Subject: A design used to study the behavior change that
an individual or group experiences as a result of an intervention.
 Ex. The effects of weekly teacher and parent communication on the
completion of homework of eighth-grade at-risk students.
SAMPLING
 is the process of choosing a representative portion
of a population or some elements in a population
that will represent the entire population.
 It is assumed that the characteristics of the chosen
elements, called sample, reflect the characteristics
of the entire population. It contrast total
enumeration or census requires the study of all
elements in the population.
 PARTICIPANTS OF THE STUDY
 The population is a complete set of persons or
objects that possess some common
characteristics that are of interest to the
researcher.
 A parameter is a numeric characteristic of a
population
 A sample is subset of the entire population or a
group of individuals that represents the
population and serves as respondents of the
study.
 A statistic is a numeric characteristic of a
sample.
 SAMPLE SIZE
FACTORS to Consider in Determining
Sample Size
 Homogeneity of the population
 thehigher the degree of homogeneity of the population,
the smaller is the sample size that can be utilized.
 Degree of precision desired by the researcher
 Thelarger the sample size, the higher is the precision or
accuracy of results.
 Types of sampling procedure.
 Probability
sampling utilizes smaller sample sizes than
non-probability sampling.
 SAMPLE SIZE

 Sample sizes as small as 30 are generally

adequate to ensure that the sampling
distribution of the mean will approximate
the normal curve (Shott, 1990)
 When the total population is equal to or
less than 100, this same number may
serve as the sample size. This is called
universal sampling.
 SAMPLE SIZE
 Slovin’s Formula

 According to Gay (1976), the following are the

acceptable sizes for different types of research:
 Descriptive research – 10%-20% may be required
 Correlational research – 30 subjects or respondents
 Comparative research – 15 subjects/group
 Experimental research – 15 – 30 subjects per group
 KINDS OF SAMPLING
 Probability sampling
 Simple random sampling
 Stratified random sampling
 Cluster sampling
 Stratified random sampling

 Non-probability sampling
 Convenience sampling
 Quota sampling
 Purposive sampling
 NOTE

 In formulating the selection, and describing

the respondents of the study, the following
elements must be discussed:
 Totalpopulation and its parameters
 The sample and its statistics
 The sampling method with references to support it
 An explanation and discussion of the sampling
method
 An explanation on how the sampling was done
 And enumeration of the qualifying criteria
 The profile of the respondents
 ACTIVITY
PARTICIPANTS OF THE STUDY
 DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions
thoroughly. The used of additional references
is encouraged.
1. How would you describe the population and the
parameter of your study?
2. What is the size of your sample? How did you arrive at
this sample size?
3. What sampling method will you use? Why do you
prefer this method?
4. How will you do the sampling? List down the steps.
5. What are the qualifying criteria for the selection of
the sample?
ETHICS IN RESEARCH

 Importance of Ethics in Research

 Ethics promotes the pursuit of knowledge and
truth and avoidance of errors.
 Important values are trust, accountability,
mutual respect, and fairness…
 Many of the ethical norms help ensure that
researchers are held accountable to the
public…
 Helps build public support for research…
RESEARCH ETHICS

 Respecting Participant Bill of

Rights
Right to be briefed about
Participant Rights study
Know the purpose of the
study and any social
consequences
Right to refuse or
withdraw from study at
any time
Right to anonymity
Right to gain something
from the study
22
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH
PARTICIPANT

 Voluntary participation
 Informed consent
 Risk of harm
 Confidentiality
 Anonymity
 GENERAL/BASIC ETHICAL
PRINCIPLES

 RESPECT FOR PERSON

 BENEFICENCE
 NON-MALEFICENCE
 JUSTICE
 Ethical considerations
 Right to refuse to be involved
 Right to stop being involved
 Strategies for achieving and maintaining
support from participants (schools,
universities)
 Training others to implement the
treatment.
 No harming of students (minimal risk)
 Subject’s right to privacy
 Parental consent
 Collecting data without permission
 Sharing of data
 ETHICAL CODES AND POLICIES
FOR RESEARCH
 Honesty
 Objectivity
 Integrity
 Care
 Openness
 Respect for intellectual property
 Confidentiality
 Responsible publication
 Responsible monitoring
 ETHICAL CODES AND POLICIES
FOR RESEARCH

 Respect for colleagues

 Social responsibility
 Non-discrimination
 Competence
 Legality
 Human subject’s protection
IMPORTANT ETHICAL ISSUES IN
CONDUCTING RESEARCH

 Institutional Review Boards

 Professional Associations
 Ethical Practices throughout the Research
Process
 Some Ethical Issues in Data Collection
 Some Ethical Issues in Data Reporting
ETHICS REVIEW COMMITTEE

Review the
scientific merit and ethical
acceptability
of any research involving
human participants
 RESEARCH ETHICS
 Honoring Research Sites
 Get permission first
 Don’t overly disturb operation
 Remember you may be a guest

 Reporting Research Fully & Honestly

 Make sure your reporting is accurate.
 Report what you find even if it does not support your
hypothesis.
UNETHICAL ACTIVITIES

 Publishing the same paper in two different

journals without informing the editor/s
 Failing to inform collaborator of one’s intent
to file a patent in order to become the sole
inventor
 Including a colleague as an author of a paper
in return for a favor even though he/she did
not contribute to it
 Discussing with your colleagues data from
the paper that you are reviewing for a
journal
UNETHICAL ACTIVITIES

 Trimming outlines from a data set without

providing sufficient justification
 Using inappropriate statistical techniques in
order to obtain favorable results and
enhance the significance of one’s research
 Making the results of the study publicly
known without first giving peers the
opportunity to review the work
UNETHICAL ACTIVITIES

 Failing to acknowledge the contributions of

other people in the field
 Making derogatory comments and personal
attacks in your review of author’s submitted
work
 Injudicious and inhumane use of animals in
research
INSTRUMENT OF THE STUDY

 Mostfrequently used data

collection techniques
Documentary analysis
Interview
Unstructured
Structured
Semi-structured

Observation

Structured
unstructured

Physiological measures
Psychological tests

Questionnaire
 Relationship of the Reviewed
Related Literature to the
Questionnaire

Types of Questions
Wordings of Questions
Characteristics of a Good Data
Collection Instrument
Scales Commonly Used in an
Instrument
 TYPES OF QUESTIONS

 Yes or No type
 Recognition Type
 Completion Type
 Coding Type
 Subjective Type
 Combination Type
 TYPES OF QUESTIONS

 Do nurses have the right to refuse on call

duties?
 Gender: ________ male ______ female
 As a teacher, after misbehavior done by a
student, I will _________.
 On a scale of 1 to 10, how will you rate your
manager’s skills?
 What can you say about PNOYS stand on DAP?
 WORDING OF QUESTIONS
 State questions in an affirmative rather than in a
negative manner.
 Avoid ambiguous questions, e.g., those which
contain words like many, always, usually, few, etc.
 Avoid double negative questions, e.g., Don’t you
disagree with the idea that…?
 Avoid double-barreled question, i.e., two
questions in one. Do you want to pursue a
doctorate degree in education and seek an
administrative position after graduation?
 SCALES COMMONLY USED IN AN
INSTRUMENT
 Likert Scale. It is a common scaling
technique which consists of several
declarative statements that expresses a
viewpoint.

 Semantic differential scale. The

respondents are asked to rate concepts on a
series of bipolar adjectives.
 ACTIVITY
INSTRUMENT OF THE STUDY
 DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions
thoroughly. The used of additional references is
encouraged.
1. What instrument(s) will you use to gather data to answer your
questions? Describe the instrument(s). Cite your reference.
2. Why did you choose this/these instrument(s)?
3. What will be the parts of your instrument? Include the major
variables and sub-variables.
4. What rating scale will you use? Discuss in detail.
5. Formulate a question that centers on one of your study
variables/sub-variables. Cite at least five indicators of your
chosen variable/sub-variable.
 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

 Validity is the ability of an instrument

to measure what it purports to
measure.

 When a study investigates the common

causes of absences, the content of the
instrument must focus on these
variables and indicators.
 TYPES OF VALIDITY
 Face validity
 Logical validity
 Content validity
 Subjecting the instrument to an analysis by a group
of experts who have theoretical and practical
knowledge of the subject.
 Construct validity
 The process of construct validation is theory-laden
 Criterion-related validity
 Concurrent
 Predictive
 Reliability refers to the
consistency of results. A reliable
instrument yields the same rank
for individuals who take the test
more than once.
 METHODS IN ESTABLISHING
RELIABILITY
 Test-retest or stability
 The same test is given to a group of respondents
twice. The scores in the first test are correlated with
scores in the second test.
 Internal consistency
 If the test in question is designed to measure a single
basic concept, it is reasonable to assume that a
respondent who gets the item right is likely to get
right in another item that is similar.
 Split-half
 Kuder-Richardson
 Split-half

 Kuder-Richardson
OTHER CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING
QUANTITATIVE MEASURES

 Sensitivity
 Specificity
 Comprehensibility
 Precision
 Speed
 Range
 Linearity
 Reactivity
 ACTIVITY
ESTABLISHING VALIDITY &
RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT

DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions thoroughly.

The use of additional references is encouraged.

1. How will you establish the validity of your instrument?

Discuss the process step by step.
2. What kind of validity will you use? Justify your answer.
3. How will you determine the reliability of your
instrument? Describe the process step by step.
4. Do you think your instrument is valid and reliable?
Justify your answer.
WHAT TYPE OF STATISTICAL TEST
DO I WANT TO DO?
ROLE OF STATISTICS IN RESEARCH
 Validity
Will this study help answer the research
question?
 Analysis
What analysis, & how should this be
interpreted and reported?
 Efficiency
Is the experiment the correct size,
making best use of resources?
 STATISTICAL TREATMENT

 Statistical treatment is the culmination

of the long process of formulating a
hypothesis, constructing the instrument,
as well as collecting data.
 It is a requisite in any research that the
researcher has a full knowledge of
statistics.
 Statistics is the body of logic and
techniques useful for collection,
organization, presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of data.
 BRANCHES OF STATISTICS

 Descriptive statistics
 Itinvolves tabulating, depicting, and describing a
collection of data.
 The data are summarized to reveal overall patterns
and to make easily manageable.
 Inferential statistics
 It involves making generalizations about the
population through a sample drawn from it.
 It involves hypothesis testing and sampling.
 It is concerned with higher degree of critical
judgment and advanced mathematical modes such as
using parametric and non-parametric statistical tools.
 COMMON STATISTICAL TOOLS
 Descriptive Statistics
 Frequency distribution
 Proportion
 Percentage
 Measures of Central Tendency
 Variability or Dispersion
 Inferential Statistics
 Parametric Tests
 T-test Pearson-Product Moment Correlation
 Z-test Simple Linear Regression
 ANOVA Multiple Regression Analysis
 Non-parametric Test
 Chi-square test
 ACTIVITY
STATISTICAL TREATMENT
 DIRECTIONS: Fill in the necessary
information based on the knowledge gained
from the discussions in this chapter.

STATEMENT OF THE STATISTICAL

PROBLEM TOOL
1. _____________________1. __________
2. _____________________2. __________
3. _____________________3. __________
4. _____________________4. __________
5. _____________________5. __________
Questions or Comments

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