Precision Engineering &

Metrology – Lecture 2
Instructor: Dr. Waqar Ahmed
Mechanical Engineering Department
University of Engineering & Technology, Taxila
waqaraq@gmail.com
Learning Outcomes of this Lecture
• Define the range of an instrument
• Classify signals as analog, discrete time, or digital
• Compute the mean and rms values for time-varying signals
• Characterize signals in the frequency domain.
1. Signal
• A measurement system takes an input quantity and transforms it into
output that can be observed
• Input Signals
• Output Signals
• Signal consists of following components
• Magnitude and Amplitude
• Frequency
2. Types of Signals
• Analog
• Discrete
• Digital
* Mostly people find it difficult to grasp the difference between
Discrete and Digital signal. Hence, here it is explained:

“A discrete signal is quantized only in time whereas a digital signal is

quantized in both time and amplitude”.
 Analog, Discrete and Digital Signal Example
Analog Signal Discrete Signal Digital Signal
5 5 5
Amplitude

Amplitude

Amplitude
2.5 2.5 2.5

0 0 0
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 0 2.5 5 7.5 10 0 2.5 5 7.5 10
Time Time Time
Signal Waveforms
• Static
• Dynamic
• Periodic
• Simple Periodic
• Complex Periodic
• Aperiodic
• Step
• Ramp
• Pulse
• Non Deterministic
Static
Static Signal
5

Amplitude
3

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time
 Periodic
Periodic Simple Sine Periodic Simple Cosine Complex Periodic Sin + Cos
2 2 2

1 1 1
Amplitude

Amplitude

Amplitude
0 0 0

-1 -1 -1

-2 -2 -2
0 90 180 270 360 0 90 180 270 360 0 90 180 270 360
Time Time Time
 Aperiodic
Step Ramp Pulse
2 5 5
4 4
Amplitude

Amplitude

Amplitude
1 3 3
2 2
0 1 1
0 0
-1 -1 -1
0 90 180 270 360 0 90 180 270 360 0 90 180 270 360
Time Time Time
Non deterministic
Non-deterministic
12

8
Amplitude

0
0 90 180 270 360
Time
 Signal Analysis
• Mean Value of the Signal • Root Mean Square Value
• For Analog Signal of the Signal
• For Analog Signal
𝑡2
‫𝑡𝑑 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡׬‬
1 𝑡2
𝑦ത = 𝑡2 1
‫𝑡𝑑 𝑡׬‬ 𝑦𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑡
1 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡1

• For Digital Signal • For Digital Signal

𝑁−1
1 𝑁−1
𝑦ത = ෍ 𝑦𝑖 1
𝑁 𝑦𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ෍ 𝑦𝑖2
𝑖=0 𝑁
𝑖=0
 Direct Current Offset
Original Signal DC Offset
Result
4 24
24
2.5 18

Amplitude
18

Amplitude
Amplitude

12
12 = 1
+
-0.5 6
6
-2 0
0 0 90 180 270 360
0 90 180 270 360
0 90 180 270 360 Time
Time
Time