Content

 Definition of sensors
 Sensitivity
 Cross-sensitivity and crosstalk
 Signal-to-noise-ratio and drift
 Resolution
 Span or range and bandwidth
 Dynamic range, gain and dynamic error
 Selectivity
 Hysteresis
 Accuracy
 Calibration
 Definitions of sensors
 Chemical sensors are defined as measurement devices Effector (magnetic, chemical, physical,
which utilize chemical or biological reactions to detect
etc.)
and quantify a specific analyte or event. They are
ususally a lot more difficult to make than physical
Active surface
sensors which measure physical parameters.
 For the distinction between biosensors and chemical
sensors we define a biosensor as one which contains a Transducer
biomolecule (such as an enzyme, antibody, or receptor),
Sensor
a cell or even tissue as the active detection component.
Integrated sensor
 A sensor, a transducer, transmitter and detector or often
Smart sensor
used as synonyms. They are devices that convert one
form of energy into another and provide the user with a
usable energy output in response to a specific Amplification/Filtering/A/D, etc
measurable input. In the chemical sensor area a
transducer plus an active surface is called a sensor.
Data storage and processing
Sensor
Output system

Control
Sensitivity
 A sensor detects information input,
Germanium
Iin, and then transduces or converts Resistance
Thermometers
it to a more convenient form, Iout i.e
Iout = F(Iin). So sensitivity is the
amount of change in a sensor’s
output in response to a change at a
sensor’s input over the sensor’s
entire range.
 Very often sensitivity approximates
a constant; that is, the output is a
linear function of the input
 Sensitivity may mathematically be
expressed as
dIout
 =
dI in
Sensitivity 35,000 Ohms/K @ 4.2 K
http://www.sci-
inst.com/sensors/grt.htm
Cross-sensitivity and crosstalk
 Cross-sensitivity: The influence of
one measurand on the sensitivity of
the sensor for another measurand
(e.h., OH- influences F- detection)
 Crosstalk: Electromagnetic noise
transmitted between leads or
circuits in close proximity to each
other
 Signal-to-noise-ratio-S/N and drift
 S/N: The ratio of the output signal with
an input signal to the output signal with
no input signal
 Drift: Gradual departure of the
instrument output from the calibrated
output. An undesirable change of the
output signal.

Noise is normally measured "peak-to-peak": i.e., the distance from the top of one such
small peak to the bottom of the next, is measured vertically. Sometimes, noise is averaged
over a specified period of time. The practical significance of noise is the factor which
limits detector sensitivity. A practical limit for this is a 2 x signal-to-noise ratio.
Resolution
 The smallest increment of change in the
measured value that can be determined
from the instrument’s readout scale.
Span or range (also called bandwidth)

 Span or range: The difference

between the highest and lowest
scale values of an instrument
 Bandwidth: The range of scale
values over which the measurement
system can operate within a
specified error range ( also used as
another word for span)
 Dynamic range, gain and dynamic error
 Dynamic range: The ratio of the
largest to the smallest value of a
range, often expressed in
decibles (dB),
 Gain:The ratio of the amplitude
of an output to input signal.
 Dynamic error: The error that
occurs when the output does not
precisely follow the transient
response of the measured
quantity.
Selectivity
 Selectivity: The ability of a sensor to
measure only one parameter, in the
case of a chemical sensor, to measure
only one chemical species
 Because of the lack of perfect
selectivity arrays are often
implemented (e.g., electronic nose and
tongue)
The electronic nose
The sensitivity of certain gas sensors to different gases
depends on the choice of catalytic sensor material and the
operating temperature. By combining several different gas
sensors into a sensor array, complex gas mixtures can be
analysed. Although the selectivity of the sensors is limited,
qualitative and quantitative gas analysis can be performed
using pattern-recognition techniques. The combination of
multiple gas sensors and signal analysis using pattern-
recognition techniques is the concept behind the electronic
nose and tongue. These instruments have been successfully
used in a number of applications, e.g., the quality estimation
of ground meat, the identification of different paper qualities,
the classification of grains with respect to microbial quality,
and the screening of irradiated tomatoes.
 Hysteresis
 The difference in the output when a
specific input value is approached
first with an increaseing and then
with a decreasing input.

Piezoelectric ceramics display hysteretic behavior. Suppose we start at zero applied

voltage, gradually increase the voltage to some finite value,and then decrease the
voltage back to zero. If we plot the extension of the ceramic as a function of the
applied voltage, the descending curve does not retrace the ascending curve - it follows
a different path.
 QuickTime™ and a
Graphics decompressor

Accuracy are needed to see this picture.

 The degree of correctness with which a

measuring system yields the “true
value” of a measured quantity (e.g.
bull’s eye) --see calibration

http://ull.chemistry.uakron.
edu/analytical/animations/
 QuickTime™ and a
Graphics decompressor
Precision are needed to see this picture.

 The difference between the instrument’s

reported values during repeated
measurements of the same quantity.
Typically determined by statistical analysis
of repeated measurements

http://ull.chemistry.uakron.
edu/analytical/animations/
Accuracy, precision and standard
deviation
 A measurement can be precise but may
not not be accurate QuickTime™ and a
Graphics decompressor
 The standard deviation (s) is a statistical are needed to see this picture.
measure of the precision in a series of
repetitive measurements (also often
given as  with N the number of data,
xi is each individual measurement, and X
is the mean of all measurements. The
valueX xi - is called the residual for
each measurement

http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/
analytical/animations/
 Calibration: standard curve
 A process of adapting a
sensor output to a know
physical or chemical quantity
to improve sensor output
accuracy i.e. remove bias
 A working or standard curve
is obtained by measuring the
signal from a series of
standards of known
concentration. The working
curves are then used to
determine the concentration
of an unknown sample, or to
calibrate the linearity of an
analytical instrument-for
relatively simple solutions
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