ECHELON FORM

OF A MATRIX
Definition: An mxn matrix A is said to be in reduced row-
echelon form if it satisfies the following properties:
1. All zero rows, if there are any, appear at the bottom of
the matrix.
2. The first entry from the left of a nonzero row is a 1. This
entry is called a leading 1 of its row.
3. For each nonzero row, the leading 1 appears to the
right and below any leading one’s in preceding rows.
4. If a column contains a leading 1, then all other entries
in that column are zero.
Definition
 Anmxn matrix B is said to be row (column)
equivalent to an mxn matrix A if B can be
obtained by applying a finite sequence of
elementary row (column) operations to A.
Theorem
 Every nonzero mxn matrix A=[aij] is row
(column) equivalent to a matrix in row (column)
echelon form.
Example
Solutions
 Make an augmented matrix
 Apply elementary row (column) operations
 Interchange any two rows (column)
 Multiply any row (column) by a nonzero number constant
 Add a multiple of a row (column) to another row (column).

Note: The method where the augmented matrix is in row echelon

form is called Gaussian elimination and the method where the
augmented matrix is in reduced row echelon form is called Gauss-
Jordan reduction.
Example: Solve the following

x + 2y + 3z = 6
2x - 3y + 2z = 14
3x + y – z = -2
Example:
 Find a matrix B in row echelon form that is row
equivalent to A.
 Find a matrix C in reduced row echelon form
that is row equivalent to A.
Elementary matrices, Find 𝐴 −1

Let A be a square matrix of order n.

 Write the mxn matrix that consists of the given matrix A on
the left and the nxn matrix identity I on the right to obtain
[A|I].
 If possible, row reduce A to I using elementary row
operations on the entire matrix [A|I]. The result will be the
matrix [I|A]. If this is not possible, then A is noninvertible (or
singleton).
 Check your work by multiplying 𝐴𝐴−1 and 𝐴−1 A to see that
𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐼 = 𝐴−1 𝐴.
Theorem (Systems of equations with unique
solutions)
 If A is an invertibleb matrix, then the system of linear
equations Ax=b has a unique solution given by x=𝐴−1 b.

DEFINITION:
An nxn matrix A is called nonsingular or invertible if there
exists an nxn matrix B such that AB = BA = In; such a B is
called inverse of A. Otherwise, A is called singular or
noninvertible.
Example:
Solve the system of equations using an inverse matrix.

2x + 3y + z = -1
3x + 3y + z = 1
2x + 4y + z = -2
Definition
Cryptography – a process of encoding and decoding of messages.

0 = _____ (space) 9=I 18 = R

1=A 10 = J 19 = S
2=B 11 = K 20 = T
3=C 12 = L 21 = U
4=D 13 = M 22 = V
5=E 14 = N 23 = W
6=F 15 = O 24 = X
7=G 16 = P 25 = Y
8=H 17 = Q 26 = Z
Example
 Write the encoded row matrices of size 1x3 for
the message
“MEET ME MONDAY”
1 −2 2
with 𝐴 = −1 1 3
1 −1 −4
Decoding a Message
1 −2 2
Use the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = −1 1 3 to decode
1 −1 −4
the cryptogram
Example:
1 0 2
 Use the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = 2 −1 1 to decode the cryptogram
0 1 2

38 -14 29 56 -15 62 17 3 38 18 20
76 18 -5 21 29 -7 32 32 9 77
36 -8 48 33 -5 51 41 3 79 12 1
26 58 -22 49 63 -19 69 28 8
67 31 -11 27 41 -18 28
Definition: Determinant

Let 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 be an nxn matrix. We define the

determinant |A| of A by 𝐴 = σ(±) 𝑎1 𝑗1 , 𝑎2 𝑗2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 𝑗𝑛 ,
where the summation is over all permutations 𝑗1 𝑗2 … 𝑗𝑛 of
the set S = {1,2,…,n}
Definition: Minors and Cofactors of a Matrix
 IfA is an nxn matrix, then the minor 𝑀𝑖𝑗 of the
element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is the determinant of the matrix
obtained by deleting the ith row and jth column
of A. The cofactor 𝐶𝑖𝑗 is given by 𝐶𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗
𝑀𝑖𝑗
Example
0 2 1
 Find the minors and cofactors of a matrix A= 3 −1 2
4 0 1
and evaluate |A|.
Procedure on how to evaluate |A|
 Choose an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 in a column row, where 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 1.
(if there’s no 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 1, then choose 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ≠ 1)
 Using 𝑎𝑖𝑗 as the pivot element, use elementary column
(row) to make all the entries below and above 𝑎𝑖𝑗
equal to zero.
 Expand |A| using the 𝑎𝑖𝑗 =1 by Laplace expansion.
Example
Definition
<V, +, •> is a Vector space if
I.
1. If 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉, then 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉.
2. 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑢, ∀𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉
3. 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤, ∀𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉
4. ∃𝜃 ∈ 𝑉 such that 𝜃 + 𝑢 = 𝑢 + 𝜃 ∀𝑢 ∈ 𝑉
5. ∀𝑢 ∈ 𝑉,there exists –u such that u + (-u) = -u + u = 𝜃.
II. For any 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅 and u, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉
1. 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 and u ∈ 𝑉, then 𝑐𝑢 ∈ 𝑉.
2. 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅 and u ∈ 𝑉, then c(du)=(cd)u
3. 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅 and u ∈ 𝑉, then (c+d)u = cu + du
4. 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 and u, v ∈ 𝑉, then c(u+v) = cu +cv
5. u ∈ 𝑉, then 1•u = u
Remarks
 Elements of V are called vectors
 Elements of the set of real numbers R are called
scalars.
 The operation “+” is called vector addition.
 The operation “•” is called scalar multiplication.
 The additive identity is 𝜃 which is called the zero
vector.
 The additive inverse of u is –u.
Example
 Let
V = set of all mxn matrices with real entries.
Define
+ to be the matrix addition
• to be the multiplication of a matrix by a
real number
Show that <V,+, •> is a vector space.
Example
LetV = Z define by
+ to be the usual addition
• to be the usual multiplication
Then <V,+, •> is not a vector space.
example
 Let𝑉 = 𝑅2 be a space defined vector
addition and scalar multiplication by
(x,y) + (x’,y’) = (x+x’, y+y’)
c • (x,y) = (cx, cy)
Prove that V is a vector space.
Definition
 LetV be a vector space over R and let W a
nonempty subset of V. If W is a vector
space with respect to the operations in V,
then W is called a subspace of V.
Lemma

Let V be a vector space over R

and let ∅ ≠ 𝑊⊆V. Then W is a
subspace of V if and only if
∀𝑢, 𝑤 ∈ 𝑊 and ∀𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑐 ∙ 𝑣 + 𝑑 ∙
𝑤 𝜖𝑊.
Example:

LetU and W be subspaces of V over R.

Then U+W={u+w| 𝑢 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑤 ∈ 𝑊} is a
subspace of V.
Linear Combination
Definition

Let 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ,…, 𝑣𝑘 be vectors in a vector

space V. A vector v in V is called a
linear combination of 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ,…, 𝑣𝑘 if
𝑣 = 𝑎1 𝑣1 + 𝑎2 𝑣2 +…+𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑘
for some real numbers 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ,…, 𝑎𝑘 .
Example
3
Express V = 7 in 𝑅 as a linear
3

−4
combination of the vectors
1 2 3
𝑢1 = 2 , 𝑢2 = 3 and 𝑢3 = 5 .
3 7 6
Example:
 Express
the polynomial 𝑉 = 3𝑡 2 + 5𝑡 − 5 as a linear
combination of the poynomials
𝑃1 = 𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 1, 𝑃2 = 2𝑡 2 + 5𝑡 + 3 and 𝑃3 = 𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 + 6
Definition: Spanning Set

 LetS = {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ,…, 𝑣𝑛 } be a set of vectors in

Vector Space V. The set S spans V, or V is
spanned by S if every vector in V is a linear
combination of the vectors in S.
 Example:

 Let
V be a vector space and let S = {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 },
1 1 1
where 𝑢1 = 2 , 𝑢2 = 0 and 𝑢3 = 1 . Does S spans
1 2 0
V?
Example:

 Show that 𝑉 = 𝑡 + 𝑡 + 2 spans the vectors 𝑃1 =

2

(𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 1), 𝑃1 = (𝑡 2 + 𝑡 + 3) and 𝑃3 = (𝑡 − 1),

where 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 ∈ 𝑃2 (Polynomial of order 2)
Example

In P2, let 𝑣1 = 2𝑡 + 𝑡 + 2 , 𝑣2 = 𝑡 − 2𝑡,

2 2
2 2
𝑣3 = 5𝑡 − 5𝑡 + 2, 𝑣4 = −𝑡 − 3𝑡 − 2
Determine if the vector v= 𝑡 + 𝑡 + 2
2

belongs to span {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , 𝑣4 }.

Linear Independence

 The set of vectors {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ,…, 𝑣𝑛 } is said to be linearly

independent provided the equation
𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 +…+ 𝑐𝑛 𝑣𝑛 = 0
has only the trivial solution, that is,
𝑐1 =𝑐2 = ⋯ = 𝑐𝑛 = 0.
If the equation 𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 +…+ 𝑐𝑛 𝑣𝑛 = 0 has a nontrivial
solution, then the set of vectors {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ,…, 𝑣𝑛 } is said to be
linearly dependent.
 Example:

Show that S ={(3,-2,4,5),(0,2,3,-4),(0,0,2,7),(0,0,0,4)}

is linearly independent.
Example:

Show that the set of vectors

{(1,1,0),(1,3,2),(4,9,5)} is linearly
dependent.
Example:

 LetV = set of all polynomials of degree ≤ 2

together with the zero polynomial. Show that
the vector 𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 2 − 4, 3𝑥 + 𝑥 2 , 5𝑥 2 + 2 are
linearly dependent.