AIRCRAFT

STRUCTURE
1
INTRODUCTION

1910
German Hugo
Junkers built
1909 an aircraft with
metal truss
Frenchman construction
Louis Bleriot and metal skin.
built a
1903 successful
First successful Mono-wing
2
powered A/C plane
by Wright Bros.
INTRODUCTION

PRESENT DAY

3
INTRODUCTION
• Earlier aircrafts were made from wood and
fabric with wires and struts.
• With the evolution in technology these
were replaced by metal structures.
• In 1930s, stressed skin wing designs were
introduced.
• After WWII, the development of turbine
engines led to higher altitude flights.
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INTRODUCTION
• Nowadays an aircraft structure is
composed of metals and composites.
• The skin of aircraft can be made from a
variety of materials, impregnated fabric to
plywood, aluminum, or composites.
• The entire airframe and its components
are joined by rivets, bolts, screws, and
other fasteners.
• Welding, adhesives, and special bonding 5

techniques are also used.

INTRODUCTION
Major categories of aircraft are:

Airplane

Rotorcraft

Glider

Lighter-than- air vehicles 6

INTRODUCTION
Most common aircraft is the fixed-wing type and it
is composed of five principle units:

Fuselage
Wings
Stabilizers
Flight control surfaces
Landing gear
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STRUCTURAL STRESSES
• The primary factors to consider in aircraft
structures are strength, weight, and
reliability.
• These factors determine the requirements
to be met by any material.
• Airframes must be strong and light in
weight.
• Reliability minimizes the possibility of
dangerous and unexpected failures. 8
STRUCTURAL STRESSES
• Many forces and structural stresses act on
an aircraft when it is flying and when it is
static.
• When it is static, the force of gravity
produces weight.
• During flight, any manoeuvre that causes
acceleration or deceleration increases the
forces and stresses on the wings and
fuselage. 9
STRUCTURAL STRESSES
Types of Stress:

An aircraft structure is subjected to various

stresses:
Tension
Compression
Torsion
Shear
Bending
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11
STRUCTURAL STRESSES
Torsional Stress:

• Torsional stress is encountered in engine

torque on turboprop aircraft.
• Also, torsional stress on the fuselage is
created by the action of the ailerons when
the aircraft is maneuvered.

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STRUCTURAL STRESSES
Bending Stress:

• There is bending force on the fuselage due

to its weight.
• Bending also occurs because of the
reaction of the airflow against the wings
and empennage.

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CHARACTERISTICS
1. Stressed Skin
 Allowed the aircraft to be more streamed lined
shape.
 Provides further reduction in weight.
2. Semi-monocoque Construction
 Increases the strength.
 Allows the load to be distributed between the
structural components and the skin.
3. Center of Lift
 Point at which the air pressures produced by the
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wing can be considered concentrated.
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
Categories of Structural Members:

1. Primary Structural Members: These

members bears the major load & its failure
may endanger the aircraft.

2. Secondary Structural Members: These

members does not bear major load & its
failure may not endanger the aircraft. 15
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
The basic functions of an aircrafts structure:

Transmit and resist the loads

Provide an aerodynamic shape
To protect passengers, payload, systems
etc. from environmental conditions
encountered in flight.

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17
FUSELAGE

• The fuselage is the main structure or body

of the fixed-wing aircraft.
• It provides space for cargo, controls,
accessories, passengers, and other
equipment.
• In single-engine aircraft, the fuselage
houses the power plant.
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FUSELAGE
There are two general types of fuselage
construction:

Truss type

Monocoque type

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FUSELAGE
Truss Type:
 A truss is a rigid framework made up of
members.
 The truss-framed fuselage is generally
covered with fabric.
• The truss-type fuselage frame is usually
constructed of steel tubing welded
together.
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21
FUSELAGE
Monocoque Type:
 It is also known as “single shell” type
structure.
 The strength of structure relies largely on
the strength of the skin.
 It is further divided into two classes:
Monocoque
Semi-monocoque
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23
FUSELAGE
Monocoque Type:

True monocoque construction is composed

of:
Formers/Frame assemblies
Skin panels
Bulkheads
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FUSELAGE
Monocoque Type:
• Since no other bracing members are
present, the skin must carry the primary
stresses,
• Heavy structural members are located at
intervals at points where fittings are used
to attach various other units.
• The biggest problem involved in
monocoque construction is maintaining
enough strength while keeping the weight 25

within allowable limits.

FUSELAGE
Semimonocoque Type:
 This type of structure was developed to
overcome the strength/weight problems
of a monocoque structure.
 The skin is reinforced by longitudinal
members called “longerons”.
 Stringers are also used which are also
longitudinal members.
 Stringers and longerons prevents bending. 26
27
FUSELAGE
Advantages of Semimonocoque fuselage:
• The bulkhead, frames, stringers, and
longerons aid in the design and
construction of a streamlined fuselage.
• The strength and rigidity of a structure
depends on many structural members.
• Because of its stressed skin construction, a
Semimonocoque fuselage can withstand
damage and still be strong enough to hold 28

together.
FUSELAGE
Skin:
 Supports the longitudinal members in
resisting the applied bending and axial
loads.
 Supports the transverse members in
resisting the hoop or circumferential load
when the structure is pressurized.

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FUSELAGE

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FUSELAGE

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FUSELAGE
Longerons:

• Longerons usually extend across several

frame members and help the skin support
primary bending loads.
• They are typically made of aluminium alloy
either of a single piece or a built-up
construction.
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FUSELAGE
Stringers:
• These longitudinal members are typically
more numerous and lighter in weight than
the longerons.
• They come in a variety of shapes and are
usually made from single piece aluminium
alloy extrusions or formed aluminium.
• Stringers have some rigidity but are chiefly
used for giving shape and for attachment 33

of the skin.
34
FUSELAGE
Stringers:
 Resist bending and axial loads along with
the skin.
 Divide the skin into small panels and
thereby increase its buckling and failing
stress.
 Act with the skin in resisting axial loads
caused by pressurization.
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FUSELAGE

• Fuselages are generally constructed in two

or more sections.
• On small aircraft, they are generally made
in two or three sections.
• While larger aircraft may be made up of as
many as six sections or more before being
assembled.
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37
FUSELAGE
Pressurization:

 Pressurization causes significant stress on

fuselage structure.
 Cycle of pressurized to unpressurized for
each flight causes metal fatigue.
 Thus pressurized fuselage structure
undergo extensive periodic inspections.
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FUSELAGE
Materials:
• Aluminium: Aluminium alloys are most
widely used in modern aircraft
construction because of its high strength-
to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance and
comparatively easy to fabricate.
• Magnesium: Magnesium is used to make
helicopters because of its low resistance to
corrosion. 39
FUSELAGE
Materials:
• Titanium: Titanium is a lightweight,
strong, corrosion resistant metal. It is
lighter than Al alloys and stainless steels.
• Steel Alloys: Steel alloys are able to
withstand forces on aircraft. Steels with
high tensile strength are used to make
rods, tubes and wires.
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FUSELAGE
Materials:
• Reinforced Plastic: Reinforced plastic has a
high strength-to-weight ratio and easy to
fabricate. Reinforced plastic is used in the
construction of radomes, wingtips,
stabilizer tips, antenna covers, and flight
control surfaces.

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42
WINGS
Wing Configuration:

 The wings of an aircraft are designed to lift

it into the air.
 Built in many shapes and sizes.
 As the shape of the wing is altered, the
amount of lift generated, balance, and
stability also gets affected.
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WINGS
Wing Configuration:

 The wings of an aircraft can be attached to

the fuselage at the top, mid-fuselage, or at
the bottom.
 Wings can angle up or down slightly, this
angle is known as the wing dihedral.

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46
WINGS
Wing Structure:
The design of wings depends on various
factors:
Size of aircraft
Weight
Use of aircraft
Desired speed during flight and at landing
Desired rate of climb. 47
WINGS
Wing Structure:
Wings can be designed as:

Full cantilever
Semi cantilever
Wire braced bi-plane
Long strut braced
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WINGS
Most commonly used material for its
construction:

Wood covered with fabric

Magnesium alloy
Aluminium
Composite materials
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WINGS

Internal structure of most wings include:

Spars
Ribs
Stringers

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WINGS
Wing construction is based on three
fundamental designs:

1. Mono-spar
2. Multi-spar
3. Box beam

Modification of these basic designs may be 51

adopted by various manufacturers.
WINGS
Mono-spar

 It incorporates only one main span-wise or

longitudinal member in its construction.
 Ribs supply the necessary contour or
shape to the airfoil.
 This type of design modified by the
addition of false spars
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WINGS
Multi-spar:
 It incorporates more than one main
longitudinal member in its construction.
 To give the wing contour, ribs or bulkheads
are often included.
 Supersonic aircraft, such as the Eurofighter
Typhoon, require extremely thin wings and
hence use a multi-spar layout.
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WINGS
Box beam:
 It uses two main longitudinal members
with connecting bulkheads.
 Skin panels with either stringers attached
to it or with in-built stringers (corrugated
sheet) are used.
 Air transport category aircraft often utilize
box beam wing construction.
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WINGS

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WINGS

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WINGS
Wing Spars:
 Spars are the principal structural members
of the wing.
 They run parallel to the lateral axis of the
aircraft.
 Spars may be made of metal, wood, or
composite materials.

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WINGS
Wing Spars:
They can be generally classified into four
different types of configuration:
A. Solid
B. Box-shaped
C. Partly hollow
D. I-beam
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WINGS
Wing Spars:
 Currently wing spars are made up of solid
extruded aluminium alloy.
 These members carry the loads caused by
wing bending load.
 Spar web is designed for fail safe
condition.
 Actual wing spar configurations assume
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many forms.
WINGS

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WINGS
Wing Ribs:
 Ribs are the structural crosspieces that
combine with spars and stringers to make
up the framework of the wing.
 They usually extend from wing leading
edge to trailing edge.
 The ribs give the wing its cambered shape.
 They transmit the load from the skin and
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stringers to the spars.
WINGS
Wing Ribs:
 Wing ribs are usually manufactured from
either wood or metal.
 The three most common types of wooden
ribs are the plywood web, the lightened
plywood web, and the truss types.
 The truss type is the most efficient
because it is strong and lightweight.
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WINGS

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WINGS
Wing Tip:
 The wing tip is often a removable unit,
bolted to the outboard end of the wing
panel.
 The wing tip assembly is of aluminium
alloy construction.
 Wing position lights are located at the
center of the tip.
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WINGS
Wing Skin:
 Skin panels of a wing based on stressed
skin design.
 The wing skin on an aircraft may be made
from a wide variety of materials such as
fabric, wood, or aluminium.
 Honeycomb structured wing panels are
often used as skin.
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NACELLE
 These are streamlined enclosures used
primarily to house the engine and its
components.
 They are usually have round or elliptical
profile, thus helps in reducing
aerodynamic drag.
 Some aircraft have nacelles that are
designed to house the landing gear when
retracted. 66
NACELLE

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NACELLE
 On multiengine aircraft, engine nacelles
are built into the wings or attached to the
fuselage at the empennage.
 A nacelle contains the engine and
accessories, engine mounts, structural
members, a firewall, and skin and cowling
on the exterior to fare the nacelle to the
wind.
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69
NACELLE
 Cowling refers to the detachable panels
covering those areas into which access
must be gained regularly.
 It provides smooth air flow over the
nacelle.
 Cowl panels are generally made of
aluminium alloy construction.

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EMPENNAGE

• The empennage of an aircraft is also

known as the tail section.
• It consist of:
Tail cone
Horizontal stabilizer
Vertical stabilizer
Movable aerodynamic surfaces.
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EMPENNAGE

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STABILIZER

• The main purpose of stabilizers is to keep

the aircraft in straight-and-level flight.
• The stabilizing surfaces of an aircraft
consist of vertical and horizontal airfoils.
• These two airfoils, along with the rudder
and elevators, form the tail section.

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STABILIZER

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STABILIZER

Directional Stability: it is achieved with the

help of vertical stabilizer which maintains
the stability of the aircraft about its vertical
axis.
Longitudinal Stability: horizontal stabilizer
provides stability of the aircraft about its
lateral axis.
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STABILIZER

• The structure of the stabilizers is very

similar to that which is used in wing
construction.
• These are also composed of spars, ribs,
stringers, and skin.
• For greater strength a honeycomb-type
construction is used at thin airfoil sections.
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FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES
• Flight control surfaces provides the
directional control to the fixed wing
aircraft.
• They are usually divided into two major
groups:
Primary Flight Control Surfaces
Secondary Flight Control Surfaces

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FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES

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FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES
Primary Flight Control Surfaces:
The primary flight control surfaces on a
fixed wing aircraft include:
Ailerons
Elevators
Rudder

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82
FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES
Primary Flight Control Surfaces:

 Ailerons are attached to the trailing edge

of both wings.
 Ailerons rotate the aircraft around the
longitudinal axis.

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FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES
Primary Flight Control Surfaces:

• Elevator moves the aircraft around the

horizontal or lateral axis.
• Elevator causes the nose of aircraft to
pitch up or down.
• The elevator is hinged to the trailing edge
of the horizontal stabilizer.
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FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES
Primary Flight Control Surfaces:

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FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES
Primary Flight Control Surfaces:

• Rudder causes an aircraft to yaw or move

about the vertical axis.
• It provides directional control by pointing
the nose of the aircraft in the direction
desired.
• It is controlled by a pair of foot-operated
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rudder pedals in the cockpit.
FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES
Secondary Flight Control Surfaces:
Flaps:
• They are usually located inboard on the
trailing edge.
• The flaps are lowered to increase the
camber of the wings.
• It provides greater lift and control at low
speed.
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FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES
Secondary Flight Control Surfaces:
Flaps:
• They enable landing at slower speeds and
shorten the amount of runway required
for take-off and landing.
• Typically, flaps can extend up to 45–50°.

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FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES
Secondary Flight Control Surfaces:
Slats:
• Slats are attached to the leading edge of
the wing.
• Slats also extends wing camber.
• Slats can be operated independently of
the flaps.
• Slats also increases the angle of attack at
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which wing will maintain its laminar flow.
FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES

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FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES
Secondary Flight Control Surfaces:
Spoilers & Speed Brakes:
• A spoiler is a device found on the upper
surface of many heavy and high
performance aircraft.
• When deployed, it raises up into the
airstream and disrupts the laminar airflow
of the wing, thus reducing lift.
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FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES

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FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES
Secondary Flight Control Surfaces:
Spoilers & Speed Brakes:
• At low speeds, spoilers are rigged to
operate along with the ailerons.
• Spoilers may also be fully deployed on
both wings to act as speed brakes.

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