Minerals

Proteins Fats Carbohydrates

Fiber Water Vitamins

 Minerals are elements that originate in the Earth and cannot be
made by living organisms. They are, therefore, inorganic. Plants
obtain minerals from the soil, and most of the minerals in our diets
come directly from plants, however this varies with geographic
locale because of soil mineral content. Some minerals come
indirectly from animal sources.…not from the beef of the cow, but
from the milk of the cow. Minerals may also be present in the water
we drink, but this also varies with geographic locale.

Like vitamins, minerals often Minerals are sturdy nutrients,

serve as coenzymes. They help meaning they will not be destroyed
protein form enzymes that during most food preparation
speed up body reactions during methods, although some leach out
digestion and metabolism. into the water used in various
cooking methods.
About 17 minerals are considered ‘essential’ to humans…
required for proper functioning and good health. Those seven
needed in amounts of 0.1 gram or more daily are considered major
minerals, or MACROMINERALS.
 An ion is an atom or group of atoms that carries a positive or
negative electric charge as a result of having lost or gained one or
more electrons. Sodium is a ‘cation’ (kăt'ī‘on) or a positively
charged ion… NA+. Chloride is an ‘anion’ (ăn'ī'ən) or the
negatively charged ion of chlorine… Cl¯. Together they form SALT.

Sodium and chloride are essential macrominerals.

 Approximately 75% of your daily salt intake in the U.S.
comes from processed and manufactured foods. The
remaining 25% comes naturally in foods and from adding
salt to foods at the table.
The lowest salt
intakes are
associated with
diets that
emphasize
unprocessed
foods,
especially fruits,
vegetables, and
legumes.
 Absorption of sodium in the small intestine plays an
important role in the absorption of chloride, proteins (amino
acids), carbohydrates (glucose), and water. Chloride, in the
form of hydrochloric acid (HCl), is also an important
component of gastric juice, which aids the digestion and
absorption of many nutrients. Sodium also helps the body to
retain water and prevent dehydration, and may have some
activity as an antibacterial.
Endocrine glands, such as the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, and pancreas
work with the kidneys to regulate sodium levels. They ‘sense’ changes in
blood pressure and volume. Blood pressure is a measure of the force
blood exerts on the walls of blood vessels.
When blood pressure is low, the kidneys
hold onto sodium and the body responds
by holding onto water. This increases
blood volume and blood pressure.
When blood pressure is high, the kidneys
release sodium, and the result is water loss
in the body. Blood volume and blood
pressure decrease.
 Sodium has functions that go beyond dietary benefits. Salt has a
reputation as a germ killer. Some people use a sodium solution as an
antibacterial mouthwash to combat microorganisms that cause sore
throats or inflamed gums. Plain saltwater soaks have also been
recommended as a remedy for sweaty feet. Saltwater soaks have
been used by some to relieve sore or aching muscles and even
appear to have some therapeutic value in treating arthritis. Salt is
believed to have a drying effect by soaking up excess perspiration.
 Sodium and chloride are
electrolytes, meaning they are
the positively and negatively
ionized salts in body fluids,
primarily those outside the
cells including blood plasma.
When sodium is dissolved in
bodily fluids, its mild electrical
charge is necessary for normal
functioning of nerve
transmissions and muscle
contractions.

Sodium works hand-in-hand with another mineral, potassium, to maintain the

concentration and pH (alkalinity and acidity) balance of intra- and extra-
cellular fluids. This balance is referred to as ‘membrane potential’, and will be
discussed in the section of this lesson on potassium.
 The AI or Adequate Intake Level for adolescents and
adults ages 14-50 years is 1.5 g sodium or 3.8 g salt per
day for males and females, based on the amount
needed to replace losses through sweat in moderately
active people and to achieve a diet that provides
sufficient amounts of other essential nutrients .
 Food Serving Sodium (g) Salt (g)

Hot dog, beef 1 0.51 1.3

Dill pickle 1 spear 0.30 0.8
Fish sandwich 1 0.94 2.4
w/ tartar sauce sandwich
Ham 3 oz. 1.0 2.5
Pretzels 10 (2 oz.) 1.0 2.5
Chicken Noodle 1 cup 1.4 3.4
Soup (canned)
Macaroni & 1 cup 1.3 3.3
Cheese (canned)
Potato Chips 8 oz. bag 1.2 3.0
 Food Serving Sodium (g) Salt (g)

Olive oil 1 tbsp. 0.000 0.000

Orange juice from 8 oz. 0.000 0.000
frozen concentrate glass
Fruit cocktail, 1 cup 0.009 0.023
canned
Carrot 1 medium 0.042 0.105
Tomato 1 medium 0.006 0.015
Potato Chips, 8 oz. bag 0.018 0.045
unsalted
Popcorn, air- 1 cup 0.001 0.003
popped & unsalted
 Sodium and chloride
deficiencies do not generally
result from inadequate dietary
intake, even in those on very
low-salt diets. Children with
cystic fibrosis have increased
sodium and chloride
concentrations in their sweat.

Hyponatremia (hī'pō-nə-trē'mē-ə) is the deficiency of sodium levels in the

blood. It may result from excessive water intake or fluid retention, or if
losses from heavy sweating are not replaced.
Conditions that increase the loss of sodium and chloride include severe
or prolonged vomiting or diarrhea, excessive and persistent sweating, the
use of some diuretics, and some forms of kidney disease. Symptoms of
hyponatremia include headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps,
twitching or weakness, fatigue, memory loss, lack of concentration,
disorientation, and fainting.
 Acute or severe hyponatremia has been recognized as a potential
problem in individuals competing in very long endurance exercise
events such as marathons or Ironman triathlons. It has been
speculated that the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) used for joint and muscle pain may increase the risk of
exercise-related hyponatremia by impairing water excretion… even
if fluid intake is modest.
Aspirin
Clinoril (sulindac)
Daypro (oxaprozin)
Feldene (piroxicam)
Indocin (indomethacin)
Lodine (etodolac)
Meclomen (meclofenamate)
Mobic (meloxicam)
Motrin, Advil (ibuprofen)
Aleve, Anaprox, Naprelan,
Naprosyn (naproxen sodium)
Orudis (ketoprofen)
Relafen (nabumetone)
Partial list of common NSAIDS: Tolectin (tolmetin sodium)
Voltaren, Arthrotec (diclofenac)
 Recent surveys have found that the
average dietary salt intake in the U.S. is
7.8-11.8 grams/day for adult men and 5.8-
7.8 grams/day for adult women… and
those did NOT include salt added to food
at the table. This exceeds the 3.8 grams
recommended per day and the 5.8 grams
that is considered the maximum safe
intake level. Excess sodium can increase
the risk of edema (swelling, particularly in
joints, caused by an accumulation of
fluids) and high blood pressure.

Hypernatremia is an abnormally high blood plasma sodium level

developed from excess water loss, and frequently accompanied by an
impaired thirst mechanism or lack of access to water. Symptoms of
hypernatremia may include dizziness or fainting, low blood pressure,
and diminished urine production.
 Like sodium, potassium is a cation : K+ This
positively charged ion is in the fluid inside the cell,
while sodium (NA+) was the principal cation in the
fluid outside of the cell.

Internal
fluid

Internal
fluid
The richest sources of potassium are fruits and vegetables and nuts.
Examples: 1 banana contains 422 mg., 1 baked potato with skin
contains 926 mg., ½ cup of raisins contain 598 mg., 1 medium
tomato contains 292 mg., 1 oz. almonds contain 200 mg.
 Do you remember step 5 of the metabolic process?
Potassium and sodium chloride are two of the
primary elements in this step.
Energy
The energy cannot get to the part of the cell it needs to
without assistance. It has to be transported in a vehicle called
Adenosine (ə-dĕn'ə-sēn') Triphosphate… ATP.
Phosphate
Enzyme
Phosphate

Phosphate Phosphate Phosphate

Energy

Phosphate Phosphate Phosphate

Energy
Energy

ADP… adenosine Then the ADP picks Reaching its destination,

diphosphate picks up another free enzymes break off the extra
up the energy floating phosphate, phosphate… releasing
Phosphate
and becomes ATP. large amounts of
energy. Phosphate
The ADP returns to pick up more energy
and phosphates.
 Potassium concentrations are about 30 times higher inside than
outside cells, while sodium concentrations are more than ten times
lower inside than outside cells. The concentration differences between
potassium and sodium across the cell membranes create an
electrochemical gradient or balance known as the ‘membrane
potential’. Potassium helps maintain membrane potential.

Inside the cell

Enzyme pump or “gate”

Semi-permeable
cell membrane

Potassium molecules
Sodium chloride molecules
Free-floating phosphate
Outside the cell
used to make ATP energy
A cell's ‘membrane potential’ or balance is maintained by
ion pumps in the cell membrane, especially the sodium,
potassium-ATPase pumps: Na+/K+ATPase . (the suffix
“ase” indicates an enzyme and is pronounced ‘ace’)
Potassium and sodium serve as co-enzymes, with
protein, to form an ion pump in the cell membrane.

Enzyme

Phosphate

Phosphate

Phosphate

Energy
 Phosphate As sodium is pumped out of the cell
Enzyme
in exchange for potassium, the
Phosphate
Energy enzyme pumps release or use ATP
Phosphate
(energy). Their activity has been
estimated to account for 20%-40% of
the resting energy expenditure in a
typical adult.

The large proportion

of energy dedicated
to maintaining
sodium/potassium
concentration
gradients
emphasizes the
importance of this
function in
sustaining life.
 When sodium chloride and potassium are dissolved in bodily
fluids, they have a mild electrical charge. For this reason, they
are called ELECTROLYTES. In the correct balance, these
fluids are necessary for normal functioning of nerve
transmissions and muscle contractions.

A beverage called an ‘electrolyte solution’ simply means that it

contains a good balance of sodium chloride and potassium, as well
as other electrolytes such as magnesium and calcium. Pedialyte is a
brand name example, often given to children with diarrhea. Gatorade
is a brand name example, often given to adults involved in heavy
exercise who are sweating profusely.
 The adequate intake level (AI) for
potassium is based on intake levels that
have been found to lower blood pressure,
reduce salt sensitivity, and minimize the
risk of kidney stones.

Adolescents and
adults, both male
and female, need 4.7
grams or 4,700
milligrams per day.
An abnormally low plasma potassium concentration is referred to as
hypokalemia, and is most commonly a result of prolonged vomiting,
the use of some diuretics, overuse of laxatives, anorexia nervosa or
bulimia, alcoholism, some forms of kidney disease and metabolic
disturbances. Symptoms include fatigue, muscle weakness and
cramps, and intestinal paralysis, which may lead to bloating,
constipation, and abdominal pain. Severe hypokalemia may result in
muscular paralysis or abnormal heart rhythms (cardiac arrhythmias)
that can be fatal.

Black licorice candy contains a

compound that increases urinary
excretion of potassium. Use caution in
habitually eating large amounts.
 Abnormally elevated serum potassium
concentrations are referred to as
hyperkalemia. Symptoms of
hyperkalemia may include tingling of the
hands and feet, muscular weakness, and
temporary paralysis. The most serious
complication of hyperkalemia is the same
as hypokalemia… the development of an
abnormal heart rhythm (cardiac
arrhythmia), which can lead to cardiac
arrest.

The greatest risks of potassium overdose is with a drug interaction, or in

taking potassium supplements. Gastrointestinal symptoms are common
side effects of potassium supplements, including nausea, vomiting,
abdominal discomfort, and diarrhea. Intestinal ulceration has also been
reported, especially when potassium chloride supplements have been taken
without food.
 Potassium levels are often affected by over-the-
counter and prescription drugs. Individuals with
abnormal kidney function or on certain medications
should be closely monitored. Common side effects of
high blood pressure medications are increased
frequency of urination and increased urinary excretion
of potassium.

Common medications affecting

potassium levels include:
Anti-coagulants
High-dose antibiotics
Decongestants
Cardiac and blood pressure medications
Diuretics NSAIDS (non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs)
 Calcium (Ca) is the most
common mineral in the
human body. About 99% of
the calcium in the body is
found in bones and teeth,
while the other 1% is found in
the blood and soft tissue.

Calcium levels in the blood and fluid surrounding the cells

(extracellular fluid) must be maintained within a very narrow
concentration range for normal physiological functioning. The
physiological functions of calcium are so vital to survival that the body
will de-mineralize bone to maintain normal blood calcium levels when
calcium intake is inadequate.
 Dairy products
contain high
levels of
absorbable
calcium, and
provide nearly
75% of the
calcium in
American diets.

Calcium rich plants in the kale family (such as broccoli, bok choy,
cabbage, mustard, and turnip greens) contain calcium that is as
absorbable as that in milk, but also contain some food components
that have been found to inhibit the absorption of calcium. Oxalic
(ŏk-săl'ĭk) acid, also known as oxalate, is the most potent inhibitor of
calcium absorption and is found at high concentrations in spinach
and rhubarb and somewhat lower concentrations in sweet potatoes
and dried beans.
Recommended Adequate Intake
Calcium Tolerable Upper
Male and Female Age
(mg/day) Intake Level
0 to 6 months 210
7 to 12 months 270
1 to 3 years 500 2,500 mg/day
4 to 8 years 800 2,500 mg/day
14 to 18 years 1300 2,500 mg/day
19 to 50 years 1000 2,500 mg/day
51+ years 1200

Average dietary intakes of calcium in the U.S. are well below the
adequate intake (AI) recommendation for every age and gender group,
especially in females. Only about 25% of boys and 10% of girls ages 9
to 17 are estimated to meet the AI recommendations.
 Calcium is a major structural
element in bones and teeth.
Bone is a tissue that is
remodeled throughout life. Bone
cells called ‘osteoclasts’ begin
the process of remodeling by
dissolving or resorbing bone.
Bone-forming cells called
‘osteoblasts’ then synthesize
new bone to replace the bone
that was resorbed. During
normal growth, bone formation
exceeds bone resorption. A
condition known as
‘osteoporosis’ may result when
bone resorption chronically
exceeds formation.
Calcium also plays a significant role in the secretion of hormones such
as insulin and as a cofactor with vitamin K for clotting blood.
Calcium levels in the blood must be maintained in precise balance in
order for all physiological functioning to take place, such as
regulating the constriction and relaxation of blood vessels, nerve
impulse transmission, and muscle contraction.

PHT ( parathyroid hormone)

secreted from the parathyroid
glands and calcitonin
secreted from the thyroid
gland regulate the amount of
calcium either deposited into
bone from the diet or stripped
from the bone when
deficiencies exist.

Vitamin D is necessary to balance the calcium levels in the blood.

Vitamin D is a component of the diet (extra is added to cereals and
dairy products) but is also synthesized in the skin in the presence of
sunlight. It stimulates calcium absorption from the small intestine
and mobilization of calcium from bone, both serving to reverse a
decrease in plasma calcium.
 Calcium absorption from the small intestine and excretion from the
kidneys are regulated to ensure that the concentration of calcium in
the plasma is very precisely balanced… in a state of homeostasis.
A low blood calcium level is rarely due to low
dietary calcium intake since the skeleton
provides a large reserve of calcium. A low
calcium level may be due to abnormal
parathyroid or thyroid function, kidney
failure, vitamin D
deficiency, or low
magnesium levels.
Magnesium levels
influence the functioning
of osteoclasts and
osteoblasts.

A chronically low calcium intake in growing individuals may prevent

the attainment of optimal peak bone mass. Once peak bone mass is
achieved, inadequate calcium intake may contribute to accelerated
bone loss and ultimately to the development of osteoporosis.
 Abnormally elevated blood calcium (hypercalcemia) resulting from the
over consumption of calcium has never been documented to occur from
foods, only from calcium supplements and usually when calcium
supplements are taken in combination with antacids. Mild hypercalcemia
may be without symptoms or may result in loss of appetite, nausea,
vomiting, constipation, abdominal pain, dry mouth, thirst, and frequent
urination. More severe hypercalcemia may result in confusion, delirium,
coma, and if not treated, death.

Only the calcium listed as ‘elemental’ in supplements is absorbable by the body.

Calcium is best absorbed in an acidic environment, hence calcium citrate is the
best absorbed supplemental form of calcium and can be taken on an empty
stomach. Calcium carbonate is alkaline based, it requires extra stomach acid
for better absorption, and is best taken right after meals or with a glass of acidic
juice such as orange juice.
 Approximately 12% of the U.S. population will have a kidney stone at
some time. Most kidney stones are composed of calcium oxalate or
calcium phosphate. Although their cause is usually unknown,
abnormally elevated urinary calcium (hypercalciuria)
(hī'pər-kal'sē-ōō'rē-ə) increases the risk of developing calcium stones.

The pain from these

stones, which have
dislodged and travel
through the ureter
and urethra tubes,
can be excruciating
and incapacitating.
Stones range in size
from that of a grain of
sand to pea-size and
larger. Stones too
large to ‘pass’ may
have to be broken up
with sound waves.
 Phosphorus (P) is an essential mineral that is required by every
cell in the body for normal function. The majority of the
phosphorus in the body is found as phosphate (PO4).
Approximately 85% of the body's phosphorus is found in bone
and teeth.
In the bones and teeth, phosphorus
combines with calcium to form
calcium phosphate.
Phosphate is found in association with protein, especially in milk and
cheese. Only a few other foods contain a lot of phosphate like
wholegrain cereals, baking powder, shellfish. Other sources are
convenience foods which have phosphates added by food
manufacturers.
 The recommended dietary allowance for phosphorus
is based on the amount needed to adequately meet
cellular and bone formation needs.

Life stage Age Males Females

(mg/day) (mg/day)
Adolescents 14-18 yrs of 1,250 1,250
age
Adults 19 yrs and 700 700
older

Some foods that are high in phosphorus include: 8 oz. skim

milk has 247 mg., 3 oz. cooked salmon has 252 mg., 1 oz.
peanuts have 107 mg., 3 oz. turkey or beef has 173 mg., 1 egg
has 104 mg., 1 oz. mozzarella cheese has 131 mg.

Phosphorus binds with lipids to form
cell membranes.
Lipid/ phosphorus
layers shown in
orange
Phosphorus serves the body as
a ‘buffer’. As such, it helps
maintain the pH of a system to
absorb specific ions and become
more acidic or alkaline.
Combined with calcium as
calcium phosphate, the
phosphorus builds strong
bones and teeth.
Nucleic acids, the DNA and RNA which
are responsible for the storage and
transmission of genetic information,
are long chains of phosphate-
containing molecules… as shown here
in blue spheres.
 Once again, do you remember step 5 of the metabolic
process? Phosphate is a component of the ADP and
ATP that helps carry and release energy.
Energy
The energy cannot get to the part of the cell it needs to
without assistance. It has to be transported in a vehicle called
Adenosine (ə-dĕn'ə-sēn') Triphosphate… ATP.
Phosphate
Enzyme
Phosphate

Phosphate Phosphate Phosphate

Energy

Phosphate Phosphate Phosphate

Energy
Energy

ADP… adenosine Then the ADP picks Reaching its destination,

diphosphate picks up another free enzymes break off the extra
up the energy floating phosphate, phosphate… releasing
Phosphate
and becomes ATP. large amounts of
energy. Phosphate
The ADP returns to pick up more energy
and phosphates.
 Inadequate phosphorus intake
results in abnormally low
The effects of blood phosphate levels
hypophosphatemia (hypophosphatemia).
may include loss of
appetite, anemia,
muscle weakness,
bone pain, rickets (in
children),
osteoporosis (in
adults), increased
susceptibility to
infection, numbness
and tingling of the
extremities, difficulty Fractures due to osteoporosis
walking, and death in may not show up for years
severe cases. following chronic deficiencies.

Because phosphorus is so widespread in food,

dietary phosphorus deficiency is usually seen only in
cases of near-total starvation. Other individuals at
risk of hypophosphatemia include alcoholics and
some diabetics.
 The most serious adverse effect of abnormally elevated blood
levels of phosphate (hyperphosphatemia) is the calcification of
non-skeletal tissues. Calcium phosphate deposits can lead to organ
damage, especially when the calcified deposits are in the kidney in
the form of kidney stones. The upper tolerable limit is 4,000 mg/day.

Abnormal and even painful

calcium phosphate deposits can
appear on joints and teeth, and
appear on Xrays.
 Magnesium (Mg) plays important roles in the structure and the
function of the human body. The adult human body contains about
25 grams of magnesium. Over 60% of all the magnesium in the body
is found in the skeleton, about 27% is found in muscle, 6% to 7% is
found in other cells, and less than 1% is found outside of cells.
 Because magnesium is part of chlorophyll, the green pigment in
plants, green leafy vegetables are rich in magnesium. Unrefined
grains and nuts also have high magnesium content. Meats and
milk have an intermediate magnesium content, while refined foods
generally have the lowest magnesium content. Water is a variable
source of intake; harder water usually has a higher concentration
of magnesium salts.
 Phosphate

Magnesium is involved in more than 300 essential Phosphate

metabolic reactions. It functions to help ADP pick
Phosphate
up the third phosphate molecule…becoming ATP.
Energy

Then the ADP picks

up another free
floating phosphate,
and becomes ATP.

Magnesium is required for the active

Magnesium plays a transport of ions like potassium and
structural role in bone, calcium across cell membranes.
cell membranes, Through its role in ion transport
ribosomes, and systems, magnesium affects the
chromosomes. It helps conduction of nerve impulses, muscle
teeth retain calcium. contraction, and normal heart rhythm.
 Because magnesium is found in ample supplies in many foods, and
because the kidneys can limit excretion of this mineral when
supplies are low, deficiencies are rare. Conditions that may increase
the risk of a deficiency include gastrointestinal disorders, renal
disorders, alcoholism, and old age.

When magnesium
deficiencies do exist
(hypomagnesemia), the
symptoms include rapid
demineralization of bone,
retention of sodium, low
potassium levels, muscle
spasms, loss of appetite,
nausea, vomiting, insomnia,
mood swings and
personality changes.
 While there have not been any adverse effects associated with
dietary magnesium, a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for
supplemental magnesium has been determined. Adolescents and
adults should not exceed 350 mg. intake per day of supplemental
magnesium.
The initial symptom of excess
magnesium supplementation is
diarrhea. Elevated serum levels of
magnesium (hypermagnesemia) may
result in low blood pressure. Some of
the later effects of magnesium
toxicity, such as lethargy, confusion,
disturbances in normal cardiac
rhythm, and deterioration of kidney
function, are related to the severe low
blood pressure. As hypermagnesemia
progresses, muscle weakness and
difficulty breathing may occur, and
eventually cardiac arrest.

Sulfur compounds act as structural
entities (connective tissues such as
collagen), part of hair, skin, and nails, as functions in the body. No
catalysts (enzymes), as oxygen carriers
(hemoglobin), as hormones (insulin),
and as vitamins (thiamine and biotin).
Sulfur is present in four amino acids. It
interferes with copper storage.
Sulfur (S) is an essential
mineral. It is a component of
numerous compounds that
play a variety of essential
recommended daily
allowance has been set for
this mineral, although 800-
1,000 mg/day is suggested
for individuals 18 yrs and
older.

No deficiencies or toxicity
symptoms have been
specifically noted. The use
of sulfur supplements (MSM
or methylsulfonylmethane)
have produced diarrhea,
flatulence, bloating, and a
‘burning sensation’ in the
stomach.
 Although sulfur is found in most protein foods, the top three foods
containing this mineral are eggs, onions, and garlic. Sulfur content is
responsible for their characteristic odors.

Sulfur is often used as a homeopathic

(non-traditional medical practices)
remedy. It is often prescribed for internal
‘cleansing’ and for skin ailments.