Research process

Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is a formal, objective, systematic process in
which numerical data are utilised to obtain information about the world
(Burns and Grove cited by Cormack 1991). Quantitative research is
inclined to be deductive. in other words, it tests theory.

General aims of Qualitative Research

• To generalize
• To be objective
• To test theories
 Quantitative Research Process

• Theory • Data Collection

• Hypothesis • Preparation of Data
• Research Design • Analysis and Interpretations
• Devise measures of concepts • Drawing Conclusions
• Select research site/ Respondents • Report Writing
 Theory
Theory is a standardized principle o which basis we can explain the
relationship between two or more concepts or variables.

Purpose of Theory: Levels of Theory:

• Prediction • Abstract Level
• Understanding • Empirical Level

Process of Theory Development:

• Induction
• Deduction
 Hypothesis/Research
Questions
A predictive statement of a relationship between two or more
variable, which may then be tested through research.

A good hypothesis should be:

 A definite statement
Types of Hypothesis:
 Based on observations and
• Null Hypothesis H0
knowledge
• Alternative Hypothesis H1
 Predict the results very clear
 Testable with straight forward
experiment
 Research Design

• Introduction • Use of Theory

• Purpose statement • Research Questions/Hypothesis
• Significance • Limitations Deliminations
• Objectives • Ethical Consideration
 Devise Measure of
Concepts
Concept:
Abstract realities or generalized ideas about objects, attributes,
occurence or processes, that cannot be measured directly. Concepts are the
building blocks of theory.

Variable:
Empirical realities that may have varied (different) values that can be
measured directly is called variables.
Operationalization
It is the process of defining a concept so that it becomes
measurable variable, which is achieved by looking at
behavioral dimensions and categorizing them into observable
and measurable elements.
 Scale of
Measurements

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Scale Scale Scale Scale
Gender Motivation Temperature Time
1. Male 1. Highly 1. 97oC 1. 10 seconds
2. Female Motivated 2. 98oC means 10
2. Moderately 3. 99oC seconds
Motivated more than 0
3. Less
Motivated
SCALE DEFINITION PROPERTIES BASE EXAMPLE

A scale in which objects or individual • Gender

NOMINAL is broken into categories that have Identity Difference • Nationality
SCALE no numerical properties.
• Religion
A scale in which objects or
ORDINAL individuals are categorized and the Directional Order A is longer than B
SCALE categories form a rank order along
a continuum.
A scale in which the units of
INTERVAL measurement(intervals) between Equal unit size Magnitude A is feet longer than B
SCALE the numbers on the scale are all
equal.
A scale in which, in addition to order and
RATIO equal units of measurements, there is
Ratio Absolute Zero A is 2 feet long means 2 feet
SCALE an absolute zero that indicates an
absence of the variables being more than “0”
measured.
 Selection of Research Site or
Sites
With laboratory experiments, the site will already be established, in

field experiments, this will involve te selection of a field-site or sites, such

as a school or factory, while the survey research, site-selection may be

more varied. Practical and ethical factors will be a limiting factor in choice

of research sites.
 Selection of Respondents

This step involves 'choosing a sample of participants' to take part

in the study - which can involve any number of sampling techniques,

depending on the hypothesis, and practical and ethical factors. If the

hypothesis requires comparison between two different groups, then the

sample should reflect this.

 Data Collection
This is what most people probably think of as 'doing research'. In experimental

research, this is likely to involve pre-tsting respondents, manipulating the independent

varible for the experimental group and then post-testing respondents. In cross-

sectional research using surveys, this will involve interviewing the sample members by

structed-interview or using a pre-coded questionnaire. For observational research this

will involve watching the setting and behaviour of people and then assigning

categories to each element of behaviour.

 Preparation of Data
This means transforming information which has been collected into

'data'. With some information this is a straight-forward process - for

example, variables such as 'age', 'income' are already numeric.

Other information might need to be 'coded' - or transformed into

numbers so that it can be analysed. Codes act as tags that are placed on

data about people which allow the information to be processed by a

computer.
 Analysis and Interpretation
In this step, analysing data, the researcher uses a number of statistcial techniques

to look for significant correlations between variables, to see if one variable has a significant

effect on other variable.

The simplest technique is to organise the relationship between variables into

graphs, pie charts, and bar charts which gives an immediate 'intuitive' visual impression of

whether there is a significant relationship, and such tools are also vital for presenting the

results of one quantitative data analysis to others.

 Drawing Conclusions

On the basis of analysis of the data, the researcher must

interpret the results to analysis. It is at this stage that the findings

will emerge: if there is a hypothesis, is it supported? What are the

implications of the findings for the theoretical ideas that formed the

background of he research?
 Report Writing
Finally, in this stage, the research must be written up. The research will be writing for

either an academic audience, or a client, but either way, a write-up must convince the audience

that the research process has been robust, that data is a valid, reliable and representative as it

needs to be for the research purposes, and that the findings are important in the context of

already existing research.

Once the findings have been published, they become part of the stock of knowledge(or

'theory' in the loose sense of the word) in their domain. Thus, there is a feedback loop from this

step back up to step one.