DIGITAL DATA, ANALOG SIGNAL Usually for telephone networks (300 Hz to 3400Hz, voice signal) Manipulates sinusoidal signals to distinguish the bits Three types: ASK, BFSK, BPSK AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK) Two binary values are represented by two different amplitudes of the carrier frequency Commonly: logic 0 = 0, logic 1 = sinusoidal signal AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK) Example 1: Modulate the bitstream 10011010 using ASK. AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK) Example 1: Modulate the bitstream 10011010 using ASK. Solution: BINARY FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (BFSK) Two binary values are represented by two different frequencies near the carrier frequency Commonly: logic 0 = f2, logic 1 = f1 BINARY FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (BFSK) Example 2: Modulate the bitstream 10011010 using BFSK if frequency for logic 1 is twice greater than frequency for logic 0. BINARY FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (BFSK) Example 2: Modulate the bitstream 10011010 using BFSK if frequency for logic 1 is twice greater than frequency for logic 0. Solution: MULTIPLE FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (MFSK) More bandwidth, but more susceptible to error than BFSK Each of the groups of bits (clumped into symbols) are represented by frequencies of varying intervals BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING (BPSK) Two binary values are represented by two different phases in the same sinusoid, usually by around 180O (or π) shift Commonly: logic 0 = shift 180O (or π), logic 1 = no shift BINARY FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (BFSK) Example 3: Modulate the bitstream 10011010 using BPSK. BINARY FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (BFSK) Example 3: Modulate the bitstream 10011010 using BPSK. Solution: BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING (BPSK) Variants: Differential PSK (DPSK): Logic 0 = no change in phase from the previous sinusoid, Logic 1 = shift the phase by 180O (or π) from the previous sinusoid BINARY FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (BFSK) Example 4: Modulate the bitstream 10011010 using DPSK if first logic 1 is on 0 degrees phase. BINARY FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (BFSK) Example 4: Modulate the bitstream 10011010 using DPSK if first logic 1 is on 0 degrees phase. Solution: BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING (BPSK) Variants: Four-level PSK or Quadrature PSK (QPSK): two bits are lumped into a symbol, where each of the two bits represent a shift of 90O each. 00 180O shift 01 270O shift 10 90O shift 11 0O shift BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING (BPSK) Variants: Four-level PSK or Quadrature PSK (QPSK): alternatively, some represent a shift of 45O each with 90O interval. 00 225O shift 01 315O shift 10 135O shift 11 45O shift CONSTELLATION A graph that represents where a multibit encoding is mapped according to a given sinusoid Plotted as a polar coordinate system (i.e. the further it is from the center, the higher its amplitude) Each quadrant represents the two-bit symbol (logic 1 = +) X-axis: in-phase (I): represents any shifts that is an integer factor of 180O or π Y-axis: quadrature-phase (Q): represents any shifts that is an odd O 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 integer factor of 90 (that is, 90, 270, 450, etc. or , , , etc.) 2 2 2 CONSTELLATION Example: QPSK 90O shifts CONSTELLATION Example: QPSK 45O shifts QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM) Combination of ASK and PSK More than two bits are grouped into symbols Two bits only = QPSK Most significant bit/s: determines the amplitude Last significant bits: determines the phase in 90O shift from the last modulated signal (differential) QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM) 8-bit QAM: 3-bit QAM technique From a bitstream: Step 1: divide into 3 bits (e.g. 101 000 110 111) Step 2: the most significant bit determines the amplitude (e.g. 101 000 110 111), logic 0 = lower amplitude, logic 1 = higher amplitude Step 3: the last two bits determines the phase (e.g. 101 000 110 111) Step 4: encode Step 3 first for the shift, then proceed to step 2 for its amplitude QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM) 8-bit QAM: 3-bit QAM technique Phasing rules: Original signal is a sine wave, then first shift applies from this sine wave 00 0O shift from the previous signal (no change) 01 90O shift from the previous signal (sin to cos or vice versa) 10 180O shift from the previous signal (negative sin or cos) 11 270O shift from the previous signal (negative cos or sin) QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM) Example 5: Modulate using 8-QAM this bitstream 101000110111. QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM) Example 5: Modulate using 8-QAM this bitstream 101000110111. Solution: Step 1: divide into 3 bits 101 000 110 111 Step 2: the most significant bit determines the amplitude 101 000 110 111 QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM) Example 5: Modulate using 8-QAM this bitstream 101000110111. Solution: Step 3: the last two bits determines the phase 101 000 110 111 QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM) Example 5: Modulate using 8-QAM this bitstream 101000110111. Solution: Step 4: Determine how it can be encoded 101 higher amplitude, 90O shift 000 lower amplitude, 0O shift 110 higher amplitude, 180O shift 111 higher amplitude, 270O shift QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM) Example 5: Modulate using 8-QAM this bitstream 101000110111. Solution: QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM) 8-bit QAM constellation: Two variants: 90O graph and 45O graph 90O graph: QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM) 8-bit QAM constellation: Two variants: 90O graph and 45O graph 45O graph: QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM) 16-bit QAM: 4-bit QAM technique Two-dimensional amplitudes: Most significant bit determines the in-phase amplitudes, that is, amplitude in the x-axis (0 lower, 1 higher) Next significant bit determines the quadrature amplitudes, amplitude in the y-axis (0 lower, 1 higher) Last two bits determine the phase shifts in 45O format QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM) 16-bit QAM: 4-bit QAM technique Constellation: ANALOG DATA, DIGITAL SIGNAL PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM) Also called Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) if no code is used Based on Sampling Theorem (recall Signals, Spectra, and Signal Processing prelim period) Uses coded values, usually binary conversions, to determine the bitstream of a digital signal Quantizing noise occurs when rounding off deviates far enough from the actual value (quantizing error) PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM) To encode: Step 1: Determine the number of quantized elements Q to determine the number of M-bits to encode (𝑀 = log 2 𝑄) Step 2: Divide the analog signal graph into differing time intervals Step 3: Map the amplitude values at each of the time interval Step 4: Round off the PAM values to the nearest integer value (quantized value), rounding-off depends on the rules of quantizing Step 5: For each of the quantized values, map using binary conversion to determine the bitstream PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM) Example: DELTA MODULATION (DM) Uses staircase function to encode an analog data into a digital signal At each sampling interval, a graph is sometimes going up or down If the graph is sampled to be upward, logic 1 is encoded If the graph is sampled to be downward, logic 0 is encoded Quantization noise occurs when a sample of a near flat or flat curve occurs (very common in sinusoids) DELTA MODULATION (DM) Example: