Gas Exchange in

Animals
 Gas Exchange
- uptake of molecular oxygen from the
environment and discharge of
carbon dioxide to the environment
- Respiratory exchange or respiration

* Do not confuse it with cellular

respiration*
Structures of the Respiratory System
Oxygen
- needed in tissues for aerobic cellular
respiration to occur to extract ATP from
food

Hypoxemia – low level of oxygen in blood

Hypoxia- low level of oxygen in tissues
Asphyxia – lack of oxygen in the body result in
unconsciousness or death ( suffocation)
Carbon Dioxide
- must be released to prevent physiologic
pH in tissues from being acidic
- Triggers respiration
- signals Hemoglobin to release oxygen to
the tissues ( if you have low CO2,
hemoglobin will hang on to O2 and your
cells and tissues including brain will
suffer from lack of vital oxygen
….continuation
- CO2 is a waste gas and end product of
metabolism but it is very important
waste gas and it affects the functioning
of all body processes.

Hypercapnia – low level of CO2 in blood

Basic Principles Influencing Gas Exchange

1. The respiratory surface or organ is

the part of an animal body where
gases are exchanged with the
environment. To allow for gas
exchange it must be moist, large
enough and protected from
desiccation.
Respiratory surfaces or organs
 Invertebrates
 Cell surface or cell membrane- unicellular
organism
Ex. Hydra /paramecium

 Integumentary exchange
Ex. Flat worms, earth worms , amphibians

 External gills
Ex. Cray fish, lobster, sea star
 Tracheal System
- Utilizes fine air-conducting
tubules to provide gaseous
exchange at a cellular level. Not
dependent on the circulatory
system
Ex. Insects , spiders
Vertebrates
 External Gills
ex. Amphibians, salamander
 Internal gills
- Water flows over the gills and blood
circulates through them in OPPOSITE
DIRECTIONS
- This mechanism is called countercurrent
flow.
* Efficient in extracting oxygen in water *
counter-current flow
….continuation
 Lungs
- Lungs provide a membrane for gaseous
exchange ; since they are not in direct
contact with other parts of the body ,
lungs require a circulatory system for
transport to the rest of the body.
*All lungs receive deoxygenated blood from the
heart and return oxygenated blood to the
heart
2. Respiratory systems rely on the diffusion
of gases down pressure gradients.

Fick’s Law
-states that the amount of diffusion of a
gas across a membrane is proportional to
the surface area and difference in partial
pressure and inversely proportional to
the thickness of the membrane
3.Surface-to-volume ratio
- As an animal grows, the surface
area increases at a lesser rate
than its volume, making diffusion
of gases into the interior more
difficult
4. Ventilation
- Refers to the movement of the
respiratory medium (air or water) over
the respiratory surface.
- Bony fish moves the gil covers (
operculum) for water carrying oxygen to
flow across the gil.
- Humans move the muscles of the thorax
to expand and contract the chest cavity
and move air in and out of lungs
5. Respiratory Pigments or Proteins
-Bind with oxygen to transport it to
different parts of the body
Vertebrates- hemoglobin (Hgb)
Invertebrates – hemocyanin

Our blood cannot carry sufficient O2 and

CO2 in dissolved form to meet the body’s
requirement
Breathing Mechanisms in Vertebrates
 Amphibians ventilate their lungs by
positive pressure breathing which
forces air down the trachea

 Birds use a system of air sacs as

blower to keep air flowing through
the lungs in one direction only,
preventing the mixing og incoming
and outgoing air.
Mammal ventilate their lungs by
negative pressure breathing which
pulls air into the lungs when the
volume of lungs expands as the rib
muscles and diaphragm contract.

Incoming and outgoing air mix,

decreasing the efficiency of
ventilation
Coordination of Gas Exchange and Circulation
Oxygen Transport
Oxygen diffuses down a pressure gradient
from the lungs into the blood plasma
Red blood cells binds to Hemoglobin
( 4 molecules per hemoglobin to form
oxyhemoglobin)
Carbon Dioxide Transport
• Co2 diffuses down its partial
pressure gradient from the tissues
into the blood plasma and red blood
cells air in alveoli
Coordination of Air flow with Blood flow
• Gas exchange in the alveoli is most
efficient when air flow equals the
rate of blood flow.

• Local controls within the lungs

correct imbalances in air and blood
flow by constricting or dilating both
bronchioles and arterioles
Control of Respiration in Vertebrates
 The nervous system controls oxygen and
carbon dioxide levels for the entire body
by regulating the rate and depth of
breathing
 The brain monitors the pH of the
cerebrospinal fluid through sensors
(reflecting CO2 concentration in blood).
 Secondary control are exerted by sensors
in the aorta and carotid arteries that
monitor blood levels of oxygen as well as
CO2.
Respiratory adaptations to extreme conditions
such as low-oxygen environment
• Animals that inhabit high altitudes have
larger hearts and lungs, and hemoglobin
with a high affinity for binding oxygen
• Many diving animals have unusually high
hematocrits ( ratio of the volume of
packed red blood cells top the volume of
whole blood) and also muscles with high
amounts of myoglobin (an oxygen-
binding protein found in muscle cells)
 Respiratory Problems and Impact
on Public Health
• Asthma – muscles around
bronchioles contract more than
usual, increasing resistance to airflow
• Emphysema- abnormal condition of
lungs marked by decreased
respiratory function; associated with
smoking, chronic bronchitis , old age
….continuation
• Smoking tobacco products is one of
the leading global causes of death
and strongly linked to cancer,
cardiovascular disease , stroke ,
emphysema.

• Pneumonia is an infectious disease

involving inflammation and fluid
build up in the lungs