Coal to Electricity Process

Energy Conversion Process in TPS

Modified Rankine Cycle
 Boiler Efficiency
By “boiler efficiency “is meant the measure of ability of a boiler or
steam generator to transfer the heat given , by the furnace to the
water and steam. It is defined as the heat added to the working fluid
expressed as a percentage of heat in the fuel being burnt. Boiler loose
heat because it is extremely difficult to recover all the heat.
Boiler efficiency depends solely on the boiler’s ability to burn the fuel
and transfer the resulting heat to water and steam. The pressure and
temperature of steam produced does not have effect on boiler
efficiency, though these parameters have effect on turbine cycle
efficiency. Generally speaking large boilers will have greater efficiency
due to improved design construction and better fuel burning
arrangement.
A boiler, however, must be able to meet the following design
requirements :
1. Be able to produce steam at required temperature and
pressure over an a range of load and take in feed water at a
temperature which varies with turbine load.
2. Be capable of following changes in demand for steam
without excessive pressure swings which might lift the
safety valves or fail to meet the load required.
 Boiler Efficiency
There are two methods of determining boiler efficiency
1. Direct method
2. Indirect or losses method
The direct method : This method is straight forward and consists of
measuring the heat supplied to the boiler and heat added to the
steam in the boiler in a given time.
Efficiency ( for non reheat unit)
= (Enthalpy of steam – Enthalpy of feed water)* Steam Flow
(Quantity of coal * CV)
= WS{ Cp(T-To) + L + (To – t)}
Mf* CV
WS = Steam flow rate Cp = Specific heat of steam
T = S. H Steam temperature To = Saturation temperature of steam
L = Latent heat t = Feed water inlet temperature
Mf = Fuel burning rate CV = Calorific value of fuel
 Boiler Efficiency
The trouble with this method is that several of these quantities are
difficult to measure particularly coal quantity, the steam
quantity and CV of coal. The error in measurement results in an
overall tolerance of about + 1.5 % . However this method of
efficiency determination is gaining popularity of late and used
more frequently because of simplicity and advances being
made in measurement techniques.

In indirect method, the efficiency is calculated by determining the

losses in the boiler.
For this, chemical analysis of the fuel and the flue gas analysis are
the basis of calculation.

Efficiency = 100 % - Losses

 Boiler Efficiency
Thus if losses are known, the efficiency can be derived.
An important advantage of this method is that the errors in
measurement do not make significant changes in efficiency.
Thus if boiler efficiency is 90 % an error of 1% in direct method will
result significant changes in efficiency.

90+ 0.9 = 89.1 to 90.9

In indirect method, 1 % error in measurement of losses will result in
Efficiency = 100 – (10+0.1)
= 90 + 0.1 = 89.9 to 90.1
Clearly, the tolerance is narrow in losses method. However because
of advancement in instrumentation and easiness the direct method
is also becoming popular nowadays.
 Boiler Efficiency
FACTORS WHICH EFFECT BOILER EFFICIENCY (Boiler Losses)

● Loss due to the heat carried away by hot flue gases.

(a) Dry flue gas loss, and (b) Wet flue gas loss(loss due to moisture
in fuel and due to moisture formed by combustion of H2 in fuel)
● Moisture in combustion air loss
● Unburnt carbon loss– Carbon in ash loss
● Unburnt gas loss – Due to incomplete combustion of carbon
● Excess air loss.
● Radiation loss and unaccounted losses.
● Blow- down and leakages.
Dry Flue gas Losses : This is the heat loss in in the dry component of
the gases, as these are discharged from the chimney at temperature
considerably higher than atmospheric temperature. Carbon and
sulphur are constituents in fuel that produce dry flue gas.
Dry flue gas loss = W*Cpg*(T-t)
 Boiler Efficiency
Wet Flue Gas Loss :
Due to moisture in fuel : Moisture that enters the combustion
chamber as part of fuel/air causes a heat loss because it must be
heated from its initial temperature to boiling point, then evaporated
and finally superheated to leave boiler at the same temperature as
flue gases. (assume latent heat of evaporation as 2257 KJ / Kg at
atmospheric pressure).
Radiation and Unaccounted Losses : It includes heat carried away in
ash, heat loss in bottom hopper and seal water, loss from boiler
casing to surrounding, losses due to unburnt volatile matter etc.
Radiation loss depends on the effectiveness of the boiler casing
insulation.
Blow down and make up : Cause two fold losses – By way of heat
loss with blow down and subsequent heating of make up water.
 Boiler Efficiency
Maintaining efficiency : The best way to analyze the problem of
maintaining efficiency is to examine the major losses in efficiency, what
effects them, and what can be done to control them.
A typical heat balance for a pulverized coal fired utility boiler would be :
Dry gas loss 5.16 %
Loss due to hydrogen and moisture in the fuel 4.36 %
Loss due to unburned combustible 0.50 %
Loss due to radiation 0.30 %
Loss due to moisture in air 0.13 %
Manufacturer’s margin and unaccounted loss 1.50 %
Overall efficiency 88.05 %
Minor losses are usually lumped into one percentage figure and labeled
as “unaccounted for”. Of these minor unaccounted for losses, the largest
is the loss due to sensible heat in the ash or slag. The boiler operator has
significant amount of control over the losses due to dry flue gas and
unburned combustible, by adjusting boiler operation.
 Boiler Efficiency
Monitoring Efficiency : Continuous monitoring of flue temperature
and flue gas oxygen content by regularly calibrated recorder or
indicator and by periodic checks on combustibles in the refuse will
indicate if original efficiencies are being maintained. If conditions vary
from the established performance base, corrective adjustments or
maintenance steps should be taken.
High exit-gas temperatures and high draft losses with normal excess
air indicates dirty heat absorbing surfaces and need for soot blowing.
High excess air normally increases exit gas temperatures and draft
losses
and indicate the need for adjustment to the fuel-air ratio. The high
excess air may, however, be caused by excessive casing leaks, cooling
air, or air heater leaks.
High combustible in the refuse indicates a need for adjustments or
maintenance of fuel preparation and burning equipment.
 Boiler Efficiency

 Boiler efficiency varies with type of fuel.

 Oil / Coal being best and lowest with gas.
 Coal properties directly affect the efficiency of the
boiler
 Moisture in coal decreases boiler efficiency.
 Efficiency of boiler will change if the fuel fired is not as
per the design (High FGET in Tata’s unit 5 boiler is due to
high moisture and high volatile matters in coal).
 Boiler Efficiency
STACK LOSS
Heat carried away by flue gases or stack loss is the major cause for
the reduction of boiler efficiency.
It is calculated as,
Stack Loss ═ Flue gas flow × specific heat of flue gas x (flue gas exit
temperature – ambient temperature)

FACTORS ON WHICH STACK LOSS IS DEPENDENT

● Sulpher content of fuel. (determines allowable flue gas
temperature at RAPH outlet)
● Fouling of the furnace or air pre- heater.
● Excess air.
● Leakages into the furnace.
● High Burner tilt.
● Higher level elevations in service.
● Auxiliary damper positions.
 Boiler Efficiency
HEAT CARRIED AWAY BY MOISTURE
Heat absorbed by the moisture in flue gases constitutes a loss
because, water vapour is not condensed in the boiler and thus
substantial amount of latent heat (Approx..540 Kcal / kg at
atmospheric pressure) is lost.
There are two sources of moisture in flue gases viz.
● Moisture in fuel.
● Combustion product of hydrogen content in fuel.
SOURCE OF MOISTURE IN FLUE GASES
● Moisture in fuels such as coal and gas.
● Fuels containing high hydrogen Such as natural gas generate Large
amount of water vapour When burned. 2H2 + O2  2H2O
i.e . 1 kg of hydrogen, when burnt, produces 9kg of water vapour .
In addition to heat loss, presence of moisture promotes corrosion in
presence of SO2.
LOSS LOSS
INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION

Incomplete combustion means partial burning of fuel. Part of the fuel

may remain unburned or carbon in fuel may burn partially to form
carbon monoxide.

Causes of incomplete combustion are:

● Inadequate air.
● Improper distribution of air.
● Fuel not properly pulverized or
atomized.
● Low furnace temperatures.
● Moisture in fuel.
● Low secondary air temperatures.
WHY INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION IS A LOSS

● Unburned fuel is obviously a loss because it releases no energy, but

is paid for.
● Partially burned carbon releases much less energy than when burnt
fully.

2C + O2  2CO + 4,400 BTU.

C + O2  CO2 + 14,600 BTU.

As is evident partial burning of carbon generates carbon monoxide, a

toxic gas and releases much less heat and thus constitutes a huge loss.
 Boiler Efficiency
LOSS DUE TO EXCESS AIR
Quantity of air supplied over and above the minimum required
amount of theoretically determined air (stoichometric) is called
excess air. Certain quantity of excess air needs to be supplied,
because it is practically not possible for every molecule of fuel to
come in contact with every molecule of oxygen supplied in the
limited time the mixture remains in boiler with no excess air,
resulting in improper combustion and consequent losses.
However, too much excess air increases the amount of flue gases.
Since, the temperature of exit gas temperature is nearly constant ,
increase in flue gas flow means increase in stack loss.
Performance Monitoring
Optimum HR With 1% make up Kcal/Kwh Unit 5
 Performance Monitoring
Effect of various parameters on Heat Rate for 500 MW unit

Sr. Increase in Heat Increase in

Parameters
No Rate % Kcal/KWh

Drop in vacuum from 0.92 bar to 0.91 bar (10mbar

1(a) 0.4 9.6
rise in condenser back pressure)

(b) 1 Deg Cent rise in TTD of Condenser 0.35 8.4

Drop in main steam temperature by 10 Deg Cent
2 0.4 9.6
(i.e. from 538 to 528 Deg Cent)
Drop in reheat temperature by 10 Deg Cent (i.e.
3 0.275 6.6
from 538 to 528 Deg Cent)
Rise in reheat pressure drop by 1% (i.e. from
4 0.125 3
13% to 14%)
Rise in TTD of feed water heaters other than top
5 0.02 0.48
heater by 1 Deg Cent
6 Rise in TTD of top heater by 1 Deg Cent 0.057 1.37
 Performance Monitoring
Increase in
Sr. Increase in
No
Parameter Heat Rate
Kcal/KWh
%
7(a) Low pressure heater out of service 0.5 12
(b) High pressure out of service 1.5 36
Decrease in initial throttle pressure by 2
8 0.05 1.2
bar (i.e. from 166.71 bar to 164.71 bar)
Increase in steam consumption of BFPT by
9 0.28 6.6
10%(design 100% load 6.101 Kg/KWh)
10 Increase in CBD opening from 5% to 10% 0.25 6
Use of 10% superheater spray (4.72
11 0.03 0.72
Kg/Sec)
12 Use of 10% reheat spray(1.975 Kg/Sec) 0.15 3.6
Increase in flue gas outlet temperature by 10
13 0.5 12
Deg Cent
14 Increase in excess air by 10% 0.19 4.44
15 Rise in Make up by 1 % 0.75 18
 Performance Monitoring
Expected Parameters At Different Loads For Unit 5 (500 MW)

Sr No Parameter VWO 100%MCR 75%MCR 60% MCR

1. Excess Air (%) 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5
2. Cond Vacuum (Bar) -0.910 -0.910 -0.910 -0.910
3. MS Temp (C) 541 541 541 541
4. RH Temp (C) 541 541 541 541
5. MS spray( kg/s) 0 2.55 15.72 12.2
6. RH Spray (kg/s) 0 0 0 0
7. Make up (% of 1 1 1 1
steam flow)
8. Eco Inlet Temp(C) 250.8 248.8 235.1 224.7
9. FGET(C) 144 141 134 133
 Performance Monitoring
Main Steam / Reheat temperature ( reasons)

 Soot deposition on surfaces

 Passing of temperature control valves and bypass
valves
 Air flow variation
 Burner tilt position
 Soot blowers operation
 Load variation
 Fuel type and Firing pattern
 Feed water temperature variation
 GR Fan loading variation
 Secondary combustion
 Performance Monitoring
Main Steam / Reheat steam Sprays (reasons)

 Furnace slagging
 High desuperheating temperature/ Secondary
combustion
 Passing of temperature control valves
 High air flow
 High burner tilt positions / Excessive GR fans
loading
 Undesirable LRSB operation
 Low economizer inlet temperature
 Unit on partial loading
 Fuel type and Firing pattern
 Performance Monitoring
Flue Gas Exit Temperature (FGET)

Reasons

 Water wall , superheater & Reheater surfaces

slagging
 Fouling in air preheater
 Low coal mill outlet temperature
 High moisture and volatile matter in coal
 Low Coal calorific value
 Air leak in furnace
 High excess air
 Performance Monitoring
Flue Gas Exit Temperature (FGET)
Actions:
 In unit 5 RAPH rotation direction reversed and partial
blocking of PA duct was done during unit outage Jan-Feb
2006.Unit 6 RAPH secondary air bypass dampers were
blanked.
 Soot blowing after analyzing various parameter is done.
 RAPH soot blowing done regularly twice in shift.
 Percentage of Oxygen is monitored before and after
RAPH for identifying any leakages.
 Conditions of RAPH seals are checked during unit
outage.
 Duct leakages are identified & attended.
 Excess air is maintained as per stack condition
 Performance Monitoring
Economizer inlet temperature
 Economizer feed water inlet temperature monitored.
 Feed water heaters TTD & DCA are monitored.
 Heater levels and its deviation from reference value and
HP/ LP heaters drain control valve opening deviation are
monitored.
 Heater Inlet, outlet & bypass valves maintenance done
during unit outage.
 Unit 6 all HP heater feed water inlet / outlet damaged
parting plates were repaired.
 Performance Monitoring
Excess air & Air flow
 Excess air set point changed with load changes.
 Carbon in ash monitored daily.
 Secondary air dampers, Fuel air dampers & aux air
dampers are checked at regular intervals.
 Actual O2 in flue gas is compared with chemist’s
readings.
 O2 probes are calibrated at regular intervals.
 Duct leakages are identified and attended as soon as
possible.
 Performance Monitoring

Coal Mill monitoring

 Mill outlet temperature are kept 60C
 PA inlet temperature are kept 240C
 PA inlet under bowl temp are also monitored.
 Coal mill current, fuel air ratio are monitored.
 Mill fineness test are done regularly and vane setting
done accordingly.
 All four Coal pipe temperature have been provided and
monitor regularly.
 Preventive maintenance of mills are done regularly.
 Fuel air dampers are checked regularly.
 Performance Monitoring

Soot blowing optimization

 Methodology have been decided for soot blowing

operation
 DPSBs have been made available.
 Soot blowing operating frequency program is made
 Availability of soot blowers is kept maximum
 Thermal Mapping Data
Unit 6 Boiler Comparison 26-May-06 7-Mar-07 15-Jan-07 15-Dec-06 6-Sep-06 2-Aug-06
Load 510 MW 510 510 510 500 MW 510 MW
Oil / No of Oil Burners 30.3 Kg/s, 19 30.32 / 16 30.77,15 30.53 Kg/s, 16 27.16 Kg/S, 16 23.27 Kg/s, 16
Gas / No of Gas Burners Nil, 0 Nil Nil Nil 2.18 Kg/s,3 6.12 Kg/s, 4
Overfire damper 1/2 100% / 100% 100%, 100% 100%,10% 100% each 100% / 0% 100 / 0 %
aux air Damper % 12 12 30% 28 12 14
FGET Deg C 142 /142 164/148 164 / 147 148 / 142 148 / 145
Locations

10 th floor south side window 2 1372 1258 1393 1428 1294 1396
10 th floor south side window 6 1315 1268 1357 1379 1266 1332
10 th floor south side window 8 1351 1261 1308 1422 1336 1394
10 th floor East side window 859 1179 1505 987 788 977
10 th floor West side window 779 820 905 816 835
Avg Temp on 10th floor 1346 1262 1353 1410 1299 1374
8th flr east side near scaffold door
8th flr west side near scaffold door
7 th floor North side wondow 1 1436 789 1538 1560 1488 1504
7 th floor North side wondow 2 1419 1430 1494 1528 1452 1505
7 th floor South side wondow 1 1403 1375 1515 1547 1401 1508
7 th floor South side wondow 2 1446 1343 1575 1524 1442 1500
Avg Temp on 7th floor 1426 1234 1531 1540 1446 1504
CD 1 corner 1142 1360 1353 1380 1305 door hard to open
CD 3 corner 1165 1287 1457 1100 1214
Avg Temp on CD Elevation
DE 1 Corner 1288 1461 1548 1325 1385
DE 2 Corner 1352 Handle was very hot 1458 1271 1282
DE 3 Corner 1273 1338 1507 1154 1304
DE 4 Corner 1191 1402 1546 1317 1315
Avg Temp on DE Elevation
4 th floor North side window 1 1169 1534 1266
4 th floor North side window 2 1446 1330 1315 1280
4 th floor South side window 1 1374 1297 1237 1218
4 th floor South side window 2 1462 1400 1227
Avg Temp on 4th floor