IN THE NAME OF ALLAH THE MOST

GRACIOUS THE MOST MERCIFUL

Liquid FUELS
Liquid fuel
 Liquid fuels are those combustible or energy-
generating molecules that can be used to create
mechanical energy

 They also must take the shape of their container.

 Most liquid fuels, in widespread use, are derived

from fossil fuel.
Liquid fuel
Types of liquid fuel

Petroleum fuel Non-petroleum fuel

--Benzol
--gasoline
fuel -Tar oil
-Diesel fuel -Alcohols
-kerosene -Bunker oil
-Liquid
hydrogen
-Vegetable oils
-Synthetic fuel
Petroleum
Composition of petroleum fuels

 Petroleum is a mixture of many different

hydrocarbons, with some sulfur and other
impurities

 The hydrocarbons in petroleum(crude) oil are

mostly; alkanes alkenes, cycloalkanes and
various aromatic.
Crude oil •
refinery
Composition of petroleum fuels(cont.)

These hydrocarbons are grouped into general

categories:

1- Alkane ( Paraffin ) (CnH2n+2)

2-Alkene ( Olefin ) (CnH2n)
3- Cycloalkane ( Naphthenic) (CnH2n)
4-Aromatics(CnH2n-6)
Composition of petroleum fuels(cont.)
The prefix in the name of an organic molecule indicates the
number of carbon atoms found in the longest continuous chain
of carbon atoms in the molecule .

fractions of petroleum:
gas (C1-C4) ~ cooking gas
petroleum ether (C5-C6) ~ solvent for organic chemicals
Gasoline, and diesel fuel (C6-C12) ~ automobile fuel
kerosene (C11-C16) ~ rocket and jet fuel
fuel oil (C14-C18) ~ domestic heating
lubricating oil (C15-C24) ~ lubricants for automobiles and
machines
You need to memorize the following prefixes :

Prefix Number of C atom

meth- 1
eth- 2
prop- 3
but- 4
pent- 5
hex- 6
hept- 7
oct- 8
non- 9
dec- 10
Alkanes – saturated hydrocarbons
(CnH2n+2) (cont.)

 Calledsaturated because each carbon is

bonded to four other atoms

 Only single bonds

Alkanes – saturated hydrocarbons
(CnH2n+2) (cont.)

methane ethane hexane

Heptane Octane

Nonane Decane
Alkanes – saturated hydrocarbons (CnH2n+2)
(cont.)
physical properties:
 not soluble in water .

 densities between 0.6 and 0.8 g/cm3 (= less

than water)
 colorless, tasteless, nearly odorless
 boiling points increase with increasing MW,
and decrease with branching (C1-C4 are
gases)
 volatility decreases with molar weight (MW)
Alkanes – saturated hydrocarbons (CnH2n+2)
(cont.)
Alkanes and the human body:
 inhalation of alkane vapors (e.g. gasoline)
causes severe damage to the lung tissue

 liquid alkanes can also harm the skin: long-term

contact between low MW alkanes and skin remove
skin oils and can cause soreness and blisters

 high MW alkanes can be used to protect the skin:

mixtures of C20-C30 alkanes are used in skin and hair
lotions to replace natural oils
Isomers
 each of two or more molecules that have
the same number of atoms but have
different chemical structures and
therefore different properties

 Isobutane (isolated branched chain)

Isomers (cont.)
 Pentane
 Isopentane
 Neopentane
Alkyl Group
 A group of atoms that results when one
hydrogen atom is removed from an
alkane
 CnH2n+1
 Change –ane ending to –yl
 Methyl
 Ethyl
 Propyl
Alkenes – unsaturated hydrocarbons
(CnH2n)

 End in -ene
 Unsaturated hydrocarbons

 Have a double bond

Alkenes – unsaturated hydrocarbons
(CnH2n) (cont.)
physical properties:
 not soluble in water
 low boiling points – lower than alkanes of the same
length (C1-C4 are gases)
 alkenes have higher biological efect than alkanes

 the double bond is responsible for their reactivity

 the double bond is responsible for their reactivity
 2 double bonds: ALKADIENS
Cycloalkanes – cyclic saturated
hydrocarbons (CnH2n)
 carbon atoms in a ring (polygon)
 C3 and C4 are higly reactive (ring strain)

 examples: cyclopropane, and cyclohexane

Aromatic hydrocarbons
Benzene C6H6
 liquid of pleasant odour
 narcotic effect
 can damage the bone marrow
(it can give rise to leukemia)

toluene and xylenes

 narcotic and irritant effect
 less dangerous than benzene
Gasoline

 Gasoline (American) or petrol Commonwealth) is a

petroleum-derived liquid mixture, primarily used as fuel
in internal combustion engines.

 It is also used as a solvent, mainly known for its ability

to dilute paints.

 It consists mostly of aliphatic hydrocarbons obtained

by the fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced
with iso-octane or the aromatics hydrocarbons toluene
and benzene to increase its octane rating.
Chemical analysis and production of gasoline

 Gasoline is produced in oil refineries .

 Material that is separated from crude oil by distillation ,

called virgin or straight-run gasoline, does not meet the
required specifications for modern engines (in particular
octane rating).

 It is more volatile than diesel oil, kerosene, not only

because of the base constituents, but because of the
additive that are put into it.
Chemical analysis and production of gasoline
(cont.)
 The final control of volatility is often achieved by blending
with butane.

 The desired volatility depends on the ambient

temperature: in hotter climates, gasoline components of
higher molecular weight and thus lower volatility are used.

 In cold climates, too little volatility results in cars failing to

start.
Energy content of gasoline

 Gasoline contains about 32.0 MJ/L (9.67 kWh/L,).

 The specific densities of gasoline ranges from

0.71–0.77, higher densities having a greater

volume of aromatics.
Diesel Fuel

 The word "diesel" is derived from the German inventor

Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel who in 1892 invented the
diesel engines.

 Rudolf Diesel originally designed the diesel engine to

use coal dust as a fuel.

 Diesel fuel in general is any fuel used in diesel engines.

Source of diesel fuel
Petroleum diesel, also called petrodiesel, or
fossil diesel is produced from the fractional
distillation of crude oil between 200 °C and
350 °C at atmospheric pressure, resulting in a
mixture of carbon chains that typically
contain between 8 and 21 carbon atoms per
molecules.
 Diesel Gasoline Comparison

1. Density 850 g/L 720 g/L + 15 %

2- Energy 40.9 MJ/L 34.8 MJ/L + 15 %

3- Pollutants 100 % 69 % - 31 %
Diesel Fuel Heating Value

-The density of petroleum diesel is about 0.85 kg/liter ,about

18% more than gasoline, which has a density of about
0.72 kg/liter .

-When burnt, diesel typically releases about 38.6 MJ/liter,

whereas gasoline releases 34.9 MJ/liter.
Reduction of sulfur emissions in diesel

 In the past, diesel fuel contained higher

quantities of sulfur.

 European emission standard has forced oil

refineries to dramatically reduce the level of
sulfur in diesel fuels.
Health effects of diesel

 In general, the usage of biodiesel and biodiesel

blends results in decreased pollution.

 Diesel combustion exhaust is a major source of

atmospheric soot and fine particles, which is a
fraction of air pollution implicated in human
heart and lung damage.
Uses of diesel fuel

 Diesel fuel is widely used in most types of

transportions.

 It is now used almost exclusively for internal

combustion engine of self-powered rail vehicles
(locomotives and railcars).
Kerosene

 Kerosene is a thin, clear liquid formed from

hydrocarbons, with density of 0.78-0.81g/cm3.

 Kerosene is obtained from the fractional distillation

of petroleum between 150 °C and 275 °C, resulting in
a mixture of carbon chains that typically contain
between 6 and 16 carbon atoms per molecule.

 The flash point of kerosene is between 37 and 65 °C

and its auto ignition temperatures is 220 °C .
Uses of kerosene

 Liquid pesticides have traditionally used kerosene or

some other petroleum distillate as a carrier, though
water has recently begun to replace kerosene

 Kerosene has been used to treat pools of standing water

to prevent mosquitoes from breeding.

 Kerosene is used as a lubricant for the cutting of glass.

Non-Petroleum fuel

Benzol
Tar oil
Alcohols
Bunker oil
Liquid hydrogen
Vegetable oils
Synthetic fuel
Benzol
 It's generally distilled from coal , its specific gravity is
0.88, and latent heat of vaporization is about 440kj/kg.

 It is often called benzene because it consists

principally Of benzene C6 H6.

 Commercial Benzol contains about 70%bezene,

24%toluene, C6H8 and 6%heavy hydrocarbons.

 For use in engines, it is usually blended with gasoline

Tar oil
 It is a by-produced of gas production from
bituminous coal and also from coke over
operation.

 It is used to a considerable extent in Germany as

fuel for diesel engine.

 It's high viscosity and high temperature of

ignition and a specific gravity .97to1.11.
Alcohols
 Alcohol may be derived from grains, potatoes, sugar,
and cellulose by the fermentation or other processes.

 Methanol is the simplest alcohol containing one carbon

atom CH3OH.

 It is colorless, tasteless liquid with very faint odor as is

known as "wood alcohol".

 Methanol's characteristic makes it possible to use it as

substitute for gasoline and diesel fuel in passenger cars.

Alcohols (cont.)

 The methanol's energy is half that of gasoline.

 Methanol can be manufactures from a variety

of carbon based feed stocks such as natural gas,
coal, and biomass.

 Ethanol is another type of alcohol commonly

known as grain alcohol (C2H5OH).
Alcohols (cont.)

 Combustion of methanol:

2 CH3OH + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 4 H2O

 It can be produced domestically from corn or other

crops, as well as from cellulose material such as wood
or paper wastes.
Alcohols (cont.)
 The largest single use of ethanol is as a motor fuel and
fuel additive

 almost half of Brazilian cars are able to use 100%

ethanol as fuel
 Combustion of ethanol

C2H5OH + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O

Bunker oil

 It is heavy viscous oil used for boilers.

 However, when heated to about 80°C it

becomes fluid enough to be used in air
injection engines
Liquid hydrogen
 To exist as a liquid, H2 must be pressurized and
cooled to a very low temperature, 20.28 K
(−423.17 °F/−252.87°C).

 One common method of obtaining liquid

hydrogen involves a compressor resembling a jet
engine in both appearance and principle.

 Liquid hydrogen is typically used as a

concentrated form of hydrogen storages.
Uses of liquefied hydrogen

 It is a common liquid rocket fuel for rocket

applications.

 In most rocket engines fueled by liquid

hydrogen, it first cools the nozzle and other
parts before being mixed with the oxidizer
(usually liquid oxygen and burned to produce
water with traces of ozone and hydrogen
peroxide.
Liquid hydrogen
 The density of liquid hydrogen is only 70.99
g/L (at 20 K).

 Liquid hydrogen requires cryogenic storage

technology such as the special thermally
insulated containers and requires special
handling common to all cry organic.

 This is similar to, but more severe than liquid

oxygen.
Vegetable oils used as a fuel
 Used vegetable oil is increasingly being
processed into Biodiesel, or (more rarely)
cleaned of water and particulates and used as a
fuel.

 To ensure that the fuel injectors atomize the fuel

in the correct pattern for efficient combustion,
vegetable oil fuel must be heated to reduce its
viscosity to that of diesel, either by electric coils
or heat exchangers.
Synthetic fuel

 Synthetic fuel or synfuel is a liquid fuel obtained

from coal, natural gas, or biomass.

 It may also refer to fuels derived from other solids

such as plastics or rubber waste, or from the

fermentation of biomatter .
Economics of synthetic fuels
The economics of synthetic fuel manufacture vary
greatly depending on:
 the feedstock used,

 the precise process employed,

 site characteristics such as feedstock and

transportation costs,

 and the cost of additional equipment required to

control emissions.
Liquefaction of gases
Liquefaction of gases includes a number of phases used to
convert a gas into a liquid state.

The processes are used for scientific, industrial and

commercial purposes.

Many gases can be put into a liquid state at normal

atmospheric pressure by simple cooling; a few, such as
carbon dioxide, require pressurization as well.

It is a complicated process that uses various compressions

and expansions to achieve high pressures and very low
temperatures.
Merits of liquid fuel
1-Higher calorific value
2-Lower storage capacity required
3-Better economy in handling
4-Better control of consumption by using valves
5-Better cleanliness and freedom from dust
6-Practically no ashes
7-No deterioration in storage
8-No corrosion
9-Higher efficiency
Demerits of liquid fuel

1-High cost

2-Greater containers are required for storage and

transport
Gaseous Fuel
- Gaseous fuels are the most convenient because they
require the least amount of handling and are used in
the simplest and most maintenance -free burner
systems.

- A fuel in the gaseous state whose potential heat energy

can be readily transmitted and distributed through
pipes from the point of origin directly to the place of
consumption.
Gaseous Fuel

- Gas substance burns in air and releases enough

heat to be useful as a fuel

- It is also remaining sufficiently stable at ordinary

temperatures to permit long-term storage without
deterioration or undue hazard.
Types of gaseous fuel:

1- Fuels naturally found in nature such as natural

gas and methane from coal mines.

2-Fuel gases made from liquid fuel such as liquefied

Petroleum gas (LPG), refinery gases and gases
from oil gasification.

3-Fuel gases made by manufactured , by product

and other methods.
1- Fuels found in nature )Natural Gas)
Natural gas is one of the major combustion fuels
used throughout the country.

It is mainly used to generate industrial and utility

electric power, produce industrial process steam
and heat residential and commercial space.

It is versatile, abundant and relatively clean

compared to coal and oil.
1- Fuels found in nature )Natural Gas)
Natural gas consists of a high percentage of
methane(CH4) (generally above 85 percent) and
varying amounts of ethane, propane, butane,
and inert gases (typically nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, and helium).

Since methane is the largest component of natural

gas, generally properties of methane are used
when comparing the properties of natural gas to
other fuels.
Sources of methane:-
- Natural gas fields
The major source of methane is extraction from geological
deposits known as natural gas fields.

It is associated with other hydrocarbon fuels and sometimes

accompanied by helium and nitrogen.

The gas at shallow levels (low pressure) is formed by

anaerobic decay of organic matter and reworked
methane from deep under the Earth's surface.
Sources of methane:-
- Alternative sources

Industrially, methane can be created from common

atmospheric gases and hydrogen (produced, for example,
by electrolysis) through chemical reactions such as the
Sabatier process.

Methane is also produced in considerable quantities from the

decaying organic wastes of solid waste landfills.

Coal bed methane extraction is a method for extracting

methane from a coal deposit, while enhanced coal bed.
Additives to N.G.

Because natural gas is colorless, odorless, and

tasteless, mercaptan (a chemical that smells
like sulfur) is added before distribution, to give it
a distinct unpleasant odor (it smells like rotten
eggs).

This added smell serves as a safety device by

allowing it to be detected in the atmosphere, in
cases where leaks occur.
Natural Gas Uses :-

Natural gas is used to produce steel, glass, paper, clothing,

electricity and as an essential raw material for many
common products.

Natural gas is also used in homes to fuel stoves, water

heaters, clothes dryers, and other household appliances.

Some products that use natural gas as a raw material are:

paints , plastics, antifreeze, dyes, photographic film,
medicines, and explosives.
Natural Gas Contribution to Air Pollution

Burning natural gas produces carbon dioxide which

is a greenhouse gas.

Greenhouse gases contribute to the "greenhouse

effect."

But it is considered more clean than other fossil

fuels.
Natural Gas Is Often Stored Before It Is
Delivered:

Natural gas is moved by pipelines from the

producing fields to consumers.

Because natural gas demand is greater in the

winter, it is stored along the way in large
underground storage systems.
LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas):

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas that is

stored and transported in liquid form at atmospheric
pressure at a temperature of
(-162.2ºC).

Natural gas is turned into a liquid using a refrigeration

process in a liquefaction plant.

The volume of the liquid is about 600 times smaller

than in its gaseous form.
LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas):

In this compact form, natural gas can be shipped in

special tankers to receiving terminals where it is
stored in heavily insulated tanks.

At these terminals, the LNG is returned to a gaseous

form and transported by pipeline to distribution
companies, industrial consumers, and power plants.
(CNG) (Compressed Natural Gas):
- (CNG) is odorless, colorless, and tasteless.

It consists mostly of methane and is drawn from gas wells or in

conjunction with crude oil production. It is
stored in high-pressure fuel tanks.

(CNG) vehicles store natural gas in high-pressure fuel

cylinders , typically above 200 bars.

An odorant is normally added to (CNG) for safety reasons.

Advantages of (CNG):-

1- It is very easy on the engine, giving longer service life

and lower maintenance costs.

2- (CNG) is the least expensive alternative fuel when

you compare equal amounts of fuel energy.

3- The high octane rating of natural gas allows the CNG-

powered to use a very high compression ratio and
produce more power than stock gasoline.
Disadvantages of (CNG):
1-Higher vehicle cost, primarily due to higher cost of fuel
cylinders.

2-Shorter driving range Problematic for public transport vehicles

or if there are few fueling stations.

3-Heavier fuel tank, reducing fuel economy and leading to greater

braking distances.

4-Potential performance and operational problems compared to

liquid fuels.
2-Fuel gases made from liquid fuel
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG):-

LPG is a predominant mixture of propane and Butane with

a small percentage of unsaturated (Propylene C3H6
and Butylene C4H8) and some lighter C2 as well as
heavier C5 fractions.

LPG evaporates to produce about 250 times volume

of gas.

LPG vapor is denser than air , butane is about twice as

heavy as air and propane about one and a half times as
heavy as air.
2-Fuel gases made from liquid fuel
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG):-

Consequently, the vapor may flow along the ground and into
drains sinking to the lowest level of the surroundings and
be ignited at a considerable distance from the source of
leakage.

In still air vapor will disperse slowly.

Escape of even small quantities of the liquefied gas can

give rise to large volumes of vapor / air mixture and thus
cause considerable hazard.
3-Fuel gases made by manufactured , by
product and other methods:-
(a) manufactured gas method:-
Various processes are used to produce manufactured gases
such as water gas, water gas colorless and poisonous gas
that burns with an intensely hot, bluish (nearly colorless)
flame.

The gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen

with very small amounts of other gases, e.g., carbon
dioxide, and is almost entirely combustible as a result.
3-Fuel gases made by manufactured , by
product and other methods:-
The gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen with
very small amounts of other gases, e.g., carbon dioxide,
and is almost entirely combustible as a result.

Water gas is so named because of the use of water (steam) in

its preparation.

Water gas is a synthesis gas, containing carbon monoxide

and hydrogen.

It is a useful product but requires careful handling because of

the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning.
3-Fuel gases made by manufactured , by
product and other methods:-
The gas is made by passing steam over red-hot coke:
C + H2O → CO + H2
The reaction is endothermic so the coke must be continually re-
heated to keep the reaction going.

This was usually done by alternating the steam stream with an

air stream.

Water gas had a lower calorific value than coal gas so the
calorific value was often boosted by passing the gas through
a heated retort into which oil was sprayed.

The resulting mixed gas was called carbureted water gas.

(b)by-product gas method:-

Blast furnace gas is a by-product of blast furnaces that is

generated when the iron ore is reduced with coke to
metallic iron.

It has a very low heating value, because it consists of about

60 percent nitrogen, 18-20% carbon dioxide and some
oxygen, which are not flammable.

The rest is mostly carbon monoxide, which has a fairly low

heating value already.

It is commonly used as a fuel within the steel works, but it

can be used in boilers and power plants equipped to burn
it.
Biogas :-
The term "biogas" refers to gases created by the anaerobic
fermentation of biological materials.

Their main constituents are methane and carbon dioxide.

Considerable quantities of biogas are produced by

sludge digestion in the tanks of sewage treatment plants
(sewage gas) and anaerobic fermentation of agricultural
waste and organic residues in garbage tips (landfill gas).
Biogas :-
Sewage gas is used as fuel for internal combustion engines.

These engines furnish energy for driving the pumps in the

sewage plants.

The main constituents of the gas are methane and carbon

dioxide, usually some hydrogen sulphide is present.

Since biomass is a source of energy with no net carbon

dioxide emissions, its use as a fuel can help reduce the
use of fossil fuels, thus helping to reduce the greenhouse
effect.
Mine gas :-
When coal is mined underground, the released
methane gas forms a highly explosive mixture
when combined with air.

The potential danger due to the diffuse emission of

this mine gas and its main constituent methane is
reduced by effectively using it for power
generation.

The gas can be used to replace conventional fuels,

reducing methane emissions into the atmosphere.
Coal combustion products (CCPs):-

(CCPs) are the by-products generated from burning

coal in coal-fired power plants.

Coal gas may be any of a variety of gases produced

by heating coal in the absence of air and driving off
the volatile constituents.

It is not as high in fuel value as other gases and often

contains tars, light oils, ammonia, and hydrogen
sulfide
The benefits of using (CCPs) :-

There are numerous environmental, economic, and

performance benefits from using Coal Combustion
Products (CCPs) .

Economic benefits can include reduced costs

associated with coal ash and slag disposal,
increased revenue from the sale of ash, and
savings from using(CCPs) in place of other,
morecostly materials.
The benefits of using (CCPs) :-

In the United States, Coal-fired power plantsproduce 51% of

national needs for electricity.

In 2006, approximately 125 million tons of coal combustion

products were generated.

Many new Sulfur scrubbers are now being deployed at coal-

fired power plants, so the construction market is saturated, and
new uses are being sought for the combustion by-products.
Advantages of gaseous fuels :-

1- Gaseous fuel can flow through supply pipes.

2- It can be easily pressurized and give smoother

flow.

3- Uniform distribution of fuel in case of multi-cylinder

can be more easily accomplished with gaseous fuels
than with liquid fuels.
Disadvantages of gaseous fuels :-

1- Storage of gaseous fuels is a problem.

2- Cost of some gaseous fuels on the basis of

energy content is high.

3- These fuels are not suited for use in self-

propelled vehicles because of the size or
weight of the necessary storage containers.
 Thank you
Prof. Dr. Mahmoud Elkady