PHYSICAL GEODESY

(GRAVIMETRY)
A LECTURE PREPARED BY:
ENGR. A.A.WALSIYEN, JR. MA(EHP)
SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
DEPARTMENT OF GEODETIC/CIVIL ENGINEERING
 GRAVIMETRY
• GRAVIMETRY – THE SCIENCE WHICH DEALS
WITH THE EFFECTS OF GRAVITY AT DIFFERENT
POINTS ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE.

• GRAVITY – THAT FORCE WHICH TENDS TO

PULL BODIES TOWARDS THE EARTH: I.E. TO
GIVE BODIES WEIGHT.
• GRAVITY IS THE RESULTANT OF TWO OPPOSING FORCES: GRAVITATION
AND THE CENTRIFUGAL FORCE DUE TO THE ROTATION OF THE EARTH.
 GRAVIMETRY
• GRAVITY WOULD BE TAKEN TO MEAN THE
RESULTANT OBTAINED BY COMBINING THE
FORCE OF THE EARTH’S ATTRACTION DUE TO
GRAVITY AND THE CENTRIFUGAL FORCE DUE
TO THE ROTATION OF THE EARTH
• GRAVITATION – IN GENERAL, THE MUTUAL
ATTRACTION BETWEEN MASSES OF MATTER.
• IN GEODESY, THE MUTUAL ATTRACTION
BETWEEN THE EARTH AND THE BODIES ON OR
NEAR ITS SURFACE.
 NEWTON’S LAW ON UNIVERSAL
GRAVITATION
• THE LAW: THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
BETWEEN OBJECTS DEPENDS ON THEIR
MASSES AND THEIR DISTANCE OF SEPARATION

• FUNDAMENTAL OBSERVATIONS ON
GRAVITATION:
1. THE FORCE BETWEEN TWO ATTRACTING
BODIES IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE INDIVIDUAL
MASSES
2. THE FORCE IS INVERSELY PROPORTIOAL TO THE
SQUARE OF THE DISTANCE
3. THE FORCE IS DIRECTED ALONG THE LINE
CONNECTING THE TWO BODIES

NEWTON’S LAW ON UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION: - --

every particle attracts every other particle in the
universe with a force which is directly
proportional to the product of their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between their centers.
 FG = GM1M2/RSQUARE
WHERE:

FG = MAGNITUDE OF THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE

OF ATTRACTION BETWEEN THE TWO OBJECTS.
M1 = MASS OF THE FIRST OBJECT
M2 = MASS OF THE SECOND OBJECT
R = DISTANCE BETWEEN THE TWO OBJECTS
G = UNIVERSAL GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT
= 6.674×10−11 m 3/s 2/kg
• UNIT OF GRAVITATION
1 GAL. = 10 −2 m/s2 = 1 cm/s2

1 mGal = 10 −5 m/s2

1 microGal = 10 −8 m/s2
 GRAVITY DETERMINATION

T=P = period of pendulum

L = length of string from the
pivot to the center of the bob
g= value of measured gravity
Oscillation – composed of
two consecutive vibrations.
The motion of the bob from a
to b to a.
• In the following we wish to use this equation to
determine the local acceleration due to gravity g
based on a pendulum experiment. Solving for g we
obtain:

g = 4π^2(L/T^2)
s.f. significant figures
 PENDULUM
PENDULUM - IN GENERAL, A BODY SO SUSPENDED AS TO SWING
FREELY TO AND FRO UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF GRAVITY AND
OBJECT SUSPENDED FROM A FIXED POINT BY A FINE THREAD
MOMENTUM

SIMPLE PENDULUM – A THEORETICAL CONCEPT; A HEAVY

PARTICLE OR WHICH IS INEXTENSIVE AND WITHOUT WEIGHT.

THE PERIOD OF PENDULUM SHALL BE CORRECTED FOR:

1. TEMPERATURE – 15degrees Celsius 2. RATE
3. PRESSURE 4. ARC – 20degrees 5. FLEXURE
6. STRAIN
 KINDS OF GRAVITY DETERMINATION
1. ABSOLUTE DETERMINATION
- DETERMINATION OF GRAVITY IN WHICH BOTH THE P
AND L ARE DETERMINED BY MEASUREMENT

2. RELATIVE DETERMINATION
- DETERMINATION OF GRAVITY IN WHICH THE P IS
MEASURED AND G IS CALCULATED COMPARED IN DIFFERENT
STATION
Study says Earth’s magnetic field has shifted rapidly in the
past, and if it happens again it could be catastrophic

- One of the big reasons that life thrives on Earth is that

it’s protected from some of the more harsh phenomenon
of space by something that we can’t even see. It’s the
magnetic field that our planet generates, and it does a
whole lot more than tell your compass which way you’re
facing.
- A new study suggests that our planet’s poles could
indeed shift, and shift much more rapidly than previously
thought. In a paper published in the Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, researchers say that they
have found evidence that Earth’s poles have shifted quickly
in the past, and if that were to happen again it could cause
global calamity.
 The study, which was conducted by scientists in
China, Australia, and Taiwan, focuses on findings from
an unexpected place: a cave. Stalagmites from an
underground cavern in China were found to hold a
rather precise record of the magnetic changes that
took place on Earth over a 16,000 year period starting
around 107,000 years in the past.

Scientists believe that the data they gathered

reveals that Earth’s magnetic field shifted over the
course of only a couple hundred years. This polarity flip
is much faster than scientists had guessed. Previous
estimates suggested that it would take several
thousands of years for the poles to change. This is bad
news for technology-dependent species… which is
pretty much just us.
 When the poles shift, the magnetic field of the
Earth weakens significantly. Scientists theorize that the
strength of the magnetic field could dip by as much as
90 percent, which would have an incredible impact on
the electronics and power grids we depend on every
day.

Today, even with the Earth’s magnetic field at full

strength, solar weather can pose a threat to sensitive
systems. Solar flares and coronal mass ejections can fry
communication equipment and cause costly damage. If
the Earth’s protective field were to weaken by 90%, the
researchers say we could see damage that tallies in the
trillions of dollars, not to mention a significant impact
to modern life.
• Physical geodesy utilizes measurements and characteristics
of the earth's gravity field to deduce the shape of the
geoid.
- With sufficient information regarding the earth's
gravity field, it is possible to determine geoid undulations,
gravimetric deflections, and the earth's flattening.

Two distinctly different types of gravity measurements are

made:
1. absolute gravity : If the value of acceleration of
gravity can be determined at the point of measurement
directly

2. relative gravity : If only the differences in the value

of the acceleration of gravity are measured between two or
more points
• A simple pendulum consists of a string, cord, or wire that allows a
suspended mass to swing back and forth. The categorization of "simple"
comes from the fact that all of the mass of the pendulum is concentrated
in its "bob" - or suspended mass.
• As seen in this diagram, the length of the pendulum is measured from the
pendulum's point of suspension to the center of mass of its bob.
Its amplitude is the string's angular displacement from its vertical or
its equilibrium position. If a pendulum is pulled to the right side and
released to swing back and forth, its path traces our a sine curve as shown
below.
• The time required for one complete vibration, for example, from one crest
to the next crest, is called the pendulum's period and is measured in
seconds.

• The formula to calculate this quantity is

where
L is the length of the pendulum in meters
g is the gravitational field strength, or acceleration due to gravity
• This quantity at sea level is 9.81 m/sec2 and can be calculated as

where:
G = 6.67 x 10-11 nt m2/kg2
M Earth is the mass of the earth (6.02 x 1024 kg)
R Earth is the average radius of the earth (6.4 x 106 meters)
• The frequency of a pendulum represents the number of vibrations per
second. This quantity is measured in hertz (hz) and is the reciprocal of the
pendulum's period
• Let's practice a few problems with these formulas.

• What would be the period of a pendulum located at sea level if it is 1.5

meters long?

• If the pendulum's length were to be shortened to one-fourth its original

value, what would be its new period? How many complete vibrations
would this shorter pendulum trace out in one minute if it were to be
released with a small initial amplitude?

• At sea level, how long would a pendulum be if it has a frequency of 2 hz?

The timing mechanism in a grandfather's clock is based on the principles
of a simple pendulum. If your clock is gaining time, should you shorten or
lengthen its pendulum?

• Would a grandfather clock keep time on the moon?

A physical pendulum could be illustrated by swinging a meter stick about one
end or a baseball bat about one end. The formula to calculate the period
of a physical pendulum is

where
I is the pendulum's moment of inertia measured in kg m2
m is its mass in kilograms
g is the local gravitational field strength or acceleration due to
gravity
L is the moment arm or perpendicular distance from the pivot point
to object's center of mass measured in meters
Principles of Gravity Measurement

1. What is gravity measurement?

Gravity is the combination of earth attraction force and the earth self-rotation
centrifuge force (as shown below). In the gravity measurement field, cm/sec2is defined
as Gal, in memory of the Physicist Galilei. But, in gravity measurement, Gal could not
satisfy the precision requirement. Therefore, the 1/1000 of gal us used as unit, that is
mGal. The unit conversion calculation is as follows:

1Gal = 1cm / sec2

10-3Gal ( 0.001Gal ) = 1cmGal
10-6mGal ( 0.001mGal ) = 1µGal

• In short, the gravity measurement is the measurement of the gravity. Generally, it is

divided into absolute gravity measurement and relative gravity measurement two
surveying methods.
2. The principle of absolute gravity measurement

The so-called absolute gravity measurement is to use absolute gravity

instrument to measure the gravity value at each point.

The earlier absolute gravity measurement principle uses the relationship

between the pendulum periodic movement and the length of the line. This is
so called pendulum principle. The general mathematic pendulum equation is
as follows:

T = 2π x (l/g)˄½

Where T is the swing period, l is the pendulum length, and g is the gravity
force. Or, use variable pendulum line length to measure the swing period for
different length. It may be derived from the above equation: where, the
pendulum lengths are l1 and l2, the measured pendulum periods are T1, and
T2, and g is the gravity force. The T1 and T2 are half period, that is the time
required for the pendulum swing from the vertical position to the one side
and then return to the vertical position.
• Before the 21st century, the measurement of gravity force requires much effort
but the rate of success is not large. The main reasons are the requirement of
measurement of the line length and the period at the same time. Especially, there
are difficulties to measure the length of the line. It is difficult to achieve the
required precision. With the use of laser and superconductivity technology to
improve the instrument, the nGal class precision absolute gravity instrument (as
shown in diagram, the SG type instrument), may achieve the high precision
absolute gravity measurement.

The so-called relative gravity measurement is to use the relative gravity instrument
to measure the differences between any testing points in relationship to the
gravity base point readings.
• In the past, the principle of relative gravity measurement is rather simple. Use a
pendulum with fixed length, swing at different positions. Then, use the gravity
value and the square root of the period as inversed ratio to calculate the relative
gravity. For example, the gravity value of point A is known. Then the gravity ratio
value of B may be determined.

TA = PI x (1/gA)1/2 ` TB = PI x (1/gB)1/2 => gB = gA x T2A / T2B

• For the present, the relative gravity measurement uses the relative gravity instrument
(as shown in diagram, EG type instrument) to measure the differences between any
testing points in relationship to the gravity base point readings. Then, the difference in
reading is multiplied by the constant marked on the instrument. The gravity difference
/\g between the testing point and the gravity force base is then calculated. From the
absolute gravity value gAof the gravity force base and use the following equation to
calculate the absolute gravity values gBfor all testing points. The equation is as follows:
gB = gA + λg
The gravity force at any points on the earth will change with time. The
environmental factors cause the change includes the tidal attraction and attraction
of ocean tide of each day and each month, atmospheric pressure change, polar
motion, change in underground water level, the change in soil moisture, etc. Most
of the relationship and models are described in references, such as Torge(1989),
Vanicek and Krakiwsky (1986), Moritz and Mueller (1987), Melchoir (1983), in
addition to the consideration of the above-mentioned corrections, the system
errors caused by the relative gravity instrument, such as Calibration Function, and
Drift Function, may apply the gravity net horizontal difference, and use the extra
measurement method to calculate its parameters relationship. The absolute
gravity force may then be calculated for any points in the gravity net.