Digital Signal Processing

Class 2
Analog to Digital Conversion:
• Sampling. This is the conversion of a continuous-time signal into a discrete
time signal obtained by taking "samples" of the continuous-time signal at
discrete-time instants. Thus, if 𝑥𝑎 (t) is the input to the sampler, the output
is if 𝑥𝑎 (NT) = x(n), where T is called the sampling interval.
• Quantization:
This is the conversion of a discrete-time continuous-valued signal into a
discrete-time, discrete-valued (digital) signal.
The value of each signal sample is represented by a value selected from a
finite set of possible values.
The difference between the unquantized sample x(n) and the quantized
output 𝑥𝑞 (n) is called the quantization error.
• Coding. In the coding process. each discrete value 𝑥𝑞 (n) is
represented by a b-bit binary sequence.
Sampling of a Signal:
• periodic or uniform sampling
• The time interval T between successive samples is called the sampling
period or sample interval.
• its reciprocal 1/T = Fs is called the sampling rate (samples per second) or
the sampling frequency (hertz).
• Periodic sampling establishes a relationship between the time variables t
and n of continuous-time and discrete-time signals.
• T=nT=n/ Fs
• There exists a relationship between the frequency variable F (or Ω) for
analog signals and the frequency variable f (or 𝜔) for discrete-time signals.
Sampling of a Signal:
Sampling Theorem:
• A continuous time signal can be represented in its samples and can be
recovered back when sampling frequency Fs is greater than or equal
to the twice the highest frequency component of message signal.

• If the highest frequency contained in an analog signal 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 is Fmax = B

and the signal is sampled at a rate Fs > 2Fmax = 2B. Then 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 can be
exactly recovered from its sample values using the interpolation
function.
• [equations on class]
Nyquist rate:
• It is the minimum sampling rate at which signal can be converted into
samples and can be recovered back without distortion.
𝐹𝑁 = 2𝐵 = 2𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Consider the analog signal 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠100𝜋𝑡
(a) Determine the minimum sampling rate required to avoid aliasing.
(b) Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate Fs = 200 Hz. What is
the discrete-time signal obtained after sampling?
(c) Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate Fs = 75 Hz. What is
the discrete time signal obtained after sampling?

• Consider the analog signal 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠50𝜋𝑡 + 10𝑠𝑖𝑛300𝜋𝑡-

𝑐𝑜𝑠100𝜋𝑡. What is the Nyquist rate for this signal?
Aliasing:
• Aliasing is an effect that causes different signals to become
indistinguishable from each other during sampling. Aliasing is
characterized by the altering of output compared to the original
signal because resampling or interpolation resulted in a lower
resolution in images, a slower frame rate in terms of video or a lower
wave resolution in audio. Anti-aliasing filters can be used to correct
this problem.
• Aliasing ca be removed by
(a) considering fs >2fm
(b) By using anti aliasing filters.
Aliasing and Anti Aliasing:
Quantization:
• The process of converting a discrete-time continuous-amplitude signal into
a digital signal by expressing each sample value as a finite (instead of an
infinite) number of digits, is called quantization.
• The error introduced in representing the continuous-valued signal by a
finite set of discrete value levels is called quantization error or quantization
noise. [equation in class]
• If the sampling rate F, satisfies the sampling theorem, quantization is the
only error in the A/D conversion process
• Quantization is representing the sampled values of the amplitude by a
finite set of levels, which means converting a continuous-amplitude sample
into a discrete-time signal.
Quantization:
• The discrete amplitudes of the quantized output are called as
representation levels or reconstruction levels
• A Quantizer is a logarithmic function that performs Quantization
(rounding off the value). An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) works
as a quantizer.
• The quality of a Quantizer output depends upon the number of
quantization levels used. The discrete amplitudes of the quantized
output are called as representation levels or reconstruction levels.
• The spacing between the two adjacent representation levels is called
a quantum or step-size.
Quantization:
• The quality of the output of the AID converter is usually measured by
the signal-to-quantization-ration (SQNR) which provides the ratio of
the signal power to the noise power:
3 2𝑏
• SQNR= 2
2
• Expressed in decibels (dB). the SQNR is 𝑆𝑄𝑁𝑅 𝑑𝑏 = 10 log10 𝑆𝑄𝑁𝑅
• Types of Quantization: The type of quantization in which the
quantization levels are uniformly spaced is termed as a Uniform
Quantization. The type of quantization in which the quantization levels
are unequal and mostly the relation between them is logarithmic, is
termed as a Non-uniform Quantization.
• There are two types of uniform quantization: They are Mid-Rise type
and Mid-Tread type.
• The Mid-Rise type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of
a raising part of the stair-case like graph. The quantization levels in
this type are even in number.
• The Mid-tread type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of
a tread of the stair-case like graph. The quantization levels in this type
are odd in number.
Uniform Quantization:
Anti Aliasing Filtering:
• Sharp cutoff anti aliasing filters are used to band limit the signal and
the sampling frequency is increase to widen the separation between
the signal.