Tqmi Problem Solving Tools and Techniques 27 July 160215113104

Business Problem Solving-
Tools andTechniques
CONTENTS
• Introduction • Pareto Analysis

• The Problem Solving Process • Force Field Analysis
• Brainstorming • Ranking and Rating
• Cause and Effect Analysis • Solutions Effect Analysis
• Checksheets • Failure Prevention Analysis
• Concentration Diagrams • Problem Solving Summary
• Process Flowcharts • What is Continuous Improvement?
• Data Handling and Display • Checklist
INTRODUCTION
All organisations need to improve continuously. There is increasing pressure from customers,
competitors, regulators and employees to do things better, faster and at lowercost.
Customers Community Shareholders Competitors
Government CONTINUOUSIMPROVEMENT Suppliers
Other Employees Technology Regulators

Partners
INTRODUCTION
The ability to prevent and solve problems is one of the essential skills which people need to help
them address these challenges.
This guide explains a simple problem solving process and the tools you will need to help solveand
prevent day-to-day, workplace problems. It will help you learn what the tools are, what they are
used for, how to use them and their benefits.
We have included a range of examples so that you have the opportunity to see the tools applied
in different situations. They work just as well in manufacturing and service organisations, and in
the public, private and non for profit sectors.
The problem solving process and tools can be applied by individuals and teams wherever they
work in an organisation and whatever their role.
WHATEVERMADE
YOU SUCCESSFUL
IN THEPASTWON’T
IN THEFUTURE
INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS APROBLEM?
Put simply, a problem is “a deviation from normal expectations.” So, if what you’ve got isnot
what you expected, or what you want, it’s a problem.
DESIREDSITUATION
PROBLEM
CURRENTSITUATION
INTRODUCTION
People often get muddled between problems, symptoms and solutions so it helps tounderstand
the difference:
• A PROBLEM is a deviation from normal expectations
• A SYMPTOM is an effect of aproblem
• A SOLUTION is a way to correct a deviation from normal expectations
“Our problem is we need newequipment” This is a SOLUTION
“Our problem is poormorale” This is likely to be a SYMPTOM of more

specific problems
“Our problem is how to speed up the ordering This is leaping to solutions, without having
process” defined the PROBLEM
“Our problem is which supplier to choose This requires a DECISION,not a problem to be
solved
The differences may seem subtle, but they affect the way you go about defining and solving
problems. If you are not careful, you may be starting in the wrong place!
THEPROBLEM SOLVINGPROCESS
What is it?
The Problem Solving Process is a methodical and effective approach for analysing problems and
generating workable solutions to them.
When to use it
It can be used whenever you recognise that a problem exists and that a work process needs to be
improved. It will enable you to define a problem fully, conduct an analysis of the causes of the
problem and work through to the point of identifying and implementing improvement solutions.
It can be used by individuals, but most powerfully, byteams.
Why use it?

To dive headlong into implementing solutions often generates short-term improvements.
However, this can fail to eradicate the problem entirely because only the symptoms, not the
ROOTCAUSESof the problem have been dealt with. The problem solving process ensures you can
identify quick fixes as well as permanent solutions to the ROOTCAUSES.
The Problem Solving Process

1. Identify
5. Select&
Implementation stages Possible Define the problem
TestSolutions
Cause
If viable:
Review/ re-start 4. Identify 2.

If not viable Possible Investigate
Solutions & Fix
3.Analyse
Data &
IdentifyRoot
Causes
The problem solving process has three separate

phases. Firstly we must DEFINE THEPROBLEM. DEFINETHE
Then we can use the PROBLEMSOLVING WHEEL PROBLEM
to come up with workable solutions to our
problem. Finally, we go into the
IMPLEMENTATION STAGESwhere we put our
solutions into effect and see if they have solved PROBLEM
our problem. SOLVING
WHEEL
One or more of the tools and techniques, suchas

Cause and Effect Analysis, Pareto Analysis or
Checksheets may be applied throughout the
process. Each of the tools is described more fully IMPLEMENTAION
on the following pages. STAGES
But first, let’s look at the problem solving process in more detail:
Define the Problem

It is often necessary to step back from your first thoughts on what a problem is, so that you truly
understand what it is that needs tobe solved.
Problem Definition questions provide a framework to specify more closely what a problem is. By
asking what, where, when, who, how big?, we can begin to define a problem and understand its
impact.
• What exactly is the problem? It can also be helpful to askquestions
• Where is the problem? about “what is outside the
• When does the problem occur? problem?” This helps identify the
• Who is affected by the problem? boundaries to a problem and may
• How big is the problem? suggest where to look for solutions.
Problem definition example
INSIDE THE PROBLEM OUTSIDE THE PROBLEM

WHAT? Backlogs of XYZclaims haveincreased Backlogs of ABCclaimshave
remained static
WHERE? In Special Claims Processing Unit All other processingteams
WHEN? In the past 6days Backlogs were acceptable

over the past 3months
WHO? 5 staff in the SCPU Staff in other teams
HOW BIG? Backlog has increased to 40 claims and is rising by No noticeable increase in claim
5 per day volumes in other areas
From this Problem Definition we might want to find out what happened 6 days ago andwhy
other teams aren't affected.
THEPROBLEMSOLVINGWHEEL
We use the five steps in the wheel to find workable solutions to a problem. It is a systematic way
to find root causes andsolutions.
STEP1: Identify PossibleCauses

Aim: To generate a list of all the possible causes of a definedproblem.
1. Identify
5. Select & Test
Solutions
PossibleCause How: Using idea generation tools, individuals or teams identify possible
causes that relate to the problem definition. Keep an open mind, do not
4. Identify 2. Investigate
judge any suggestions at this stage and don’t get side-tracked into trying
Possible & Fix
Solutions to analyse other problems.
3. AnalyseData
& IdentifyRoot
Causes
Main tools to use: • Brainstorming

• Cause and effect Analysis
Other possible tools: • Process Flowcharts

STEP2: Investigate And Fix

Aim: To identify which possible causes actually contribute to
the problem, and fix those that can be acted upon
immediately.
5. Select & 1. Identify
TestSolutions PossibleCause
How: Collect data about each possible cause and see if it is
linked to the problem.
4. Identify 2.
Don’t rely on peoples’ opinions to rule out possible causes; Possible Investigate
Solutions & Fix
collect data and facts!
Implement any temporary fixes carefully and monitor the 3. Analyse Data
& IdentifyRoot
effect of any changes you make. Make sure that quick fixes Causes
are followed up with actions to address the rootcauses.
Main tools to use: • Checksheets

• Concentration Diagrams
• Pareto Analysis
• Data Handling and Display
Other possible tools: • Process Flowcharts

• Interviews and Questionnaires
STEP3: Analyse Data And Identify Root Causes

Aim: To identify the root causes of a problem.
How: Use analysis tools to find the cause(s) which, if 1. Identify

5. Select &
removed, will ensure a problem is solved and stays solved. TestSolutions PossibleCause
Ensure you recognise the differences between “fixes” and
root causes. 4. Identify 2.
Investigate
Possible
Solutions & Fix
Main tools to use: • Pareto Analysis
• Data Handling and Display
3. Analyse Data
& IdentifyRoot
Causes
Other possible tools: • 5 Whys
• Process Flowcharts
Fixes vs. Root Causes – examples:
Problem Possible Fix Possible Root Causes

Errors On Expense Forms Re-train people Form needs simplifying and
redesigning
High Staff Absenteeism Monitoring and disciplinary Poor leadership skills from line
action managers
Equipment Breakdown Remedial maintenance No system of preventive
maintenance
STEP4: Identify PossibleSolutions

Aim: To identify possible solutions which could be used to
eliminate the identified root cause(s).
5. Select & 1. Identify
TestSolutions PossibleCause
How: Use idea generation techniques and
4. Identify 2. involve those affected by the problem in
Possible Investigate
Solutions & Fix identifying possible solutions. Aim for as
3. Analyse Data
many ideas as possible; don’t evaluate at
& IdentifyRoot
Causes this stage. If you have done athorough
analysis, the solution may be obvious though!
Main tools to use: • Brainstorming

STEP5: Select And Test Solutions

Aim: To select an effective, practical and implementable
solution that will remove the root cause ofa problem.
5. Select &
TestSolutions 1. Identify
How: Use Ranking and Rating to select the best solution against PossibleCause
the criteria agreed by those involved. Assess the impact of the
chosen solution and ensure that it doesn’t 4. Identify 2.
Possible Investigate
cause more problems than it solves. You may need to review Solutions & Fix
what you’ve done and re-start if you can’t find a viable
3. Analyse Data
solution. & IdentifyRoot
Causes
Main tools to use: • Ranking and Rating

• Solutions Effect Analysis
• Failure Prevention Analysis
Other possible tools: • Force Field Analysis
Financial tools such as Cost-Benefit Analysis and Payback Analysis can also be used to help with
the cost justification of any solutions. Ask a Finance person if you need help with this.
Implementation Stages
Once a viable solution has been identified, you can move on to the Implementation Stages. This
involves the implementation of the solution generated at the previous stage together with the
establishment of indicators to monitor the effectiveness of the solution.
Education, Training and Communication
• Involve all those affected by the problem solution
• Listen to feedback
• Consider education and trainingneeds
Implementation Planning
• Identifyplanned activities and critical path
• Identify measures and resourcerequirements
• Involve and train those affected by thesolution
Implementation and Follow Up
• Implement your solution
• Measure improvement
• Follow up – make sure it sticks
• Report on success
BRAINSTORMING
“WE CANNOTSOLVEOUR
What is it?
Brainstorming is a technique that encourages creative thinking and the generation of ideas.
Why use it?

PROBLEMSWITHTHE
SAMETHINKING
Rational or conventional thinking does not always solve a problem or get to the root cause.
Brainstorming is a motivating and involving process which has the potential for providing
innovative and alternative answers.
WE USEDWHEN
WE CREATEDTHEM”
- Albert Einstein
BRAINSTORMING
What is it?
Brainstorming is a technique that encourages creative thinking and the generation of ideas.
Why use it?

Rational or conventional thinking does not always solve a problem or get to the root cause.
Brainstorming is a motivating and involving process which has the potential for providing
innovative and alternative answers.
When to use it
• To generate a list of potential problems to solve
• To identify possible causes of aproblem
• To identify possible solutions to a problem
• To develop action plans
BRAINSTORMING
You will realise from this list, that

Brainstorming is an integral part of S ocial
many of the tools described here, Radio
Cold Media Email
Advert
including Cause and Effect Analysis Calling Marketing
and Process Flow Diagrams.
How can we
increase
Television
Online
Marketing
sales? Advert
Networking
BRAINSTORMING
Rules for Brainstorming

• Choose the right team and have aleader
• Ensure everyone knows the rules
• Define the problem/topic clearly
• Allow time for individual thought before generating ideas as agroup
• Ensure everyone participates
• Generate as many ideas as possible
• Ban discussion and evaluation during the idea generation stage
• Record every idea, on a Flipchart
• Allow incubation time before evaluating the ideas
• Keep a relaxed atmosphere
BRAINSTORMING
Variations
Allow individuals to Brainstorm onto Cards or Post-it Notes (one idea per card), stick all the ideas
on a wall, then arrange them into groups of similar ideas. This is sometimes known as an Affinity
Diagram.
Online Offline Direct

Sales Sales S ales
S ocial Email
Radio Television Cold Networking
Media Marketing
Advert Advert Calling
FOREVERYEFFECT
THEREISA
ROOTCAUSE
CAUSEAND EFFECTANALYSIS
What is it?
A Cause and Effect Analysis is a way of identifying the possible causes affecting a problem and of
recording these visually. Cause and Effect Diagrams show the relationship between a problem
(effect) and the factors which potentially affect it (causes). They are also known asFishbone
Diagrams and Ishikawa Diagrams.
They assist the search for the root cause of a problem by organising, in a systematic way, your
knowledge and understanding of the factors which may contribute to a problem.
Cause and Effect Example

PROCESS PEOPLE Lack of regularbreaks
No pre-entry checks Pressure of work
Measured on Boredom No time
volume entered Batches too big Untrained staff
Not enough res-breaks New staff

Tempstaff WHYISTHE
No automatedchecking No pre-entry checks
MONTHLY
REPORT
‘Bugs’ in the Inadequate software
system
Illegible copy FREQUENTLY
Old technology
Faxes of faxes INCORRECT?
Keyboard ‘bounce’
Illegible handwriting
‘Sticky’ keyboard
Incorrect data
Poor environment / ergonomics
Seating,lighting,
TECHNOLOGY heating MATERIALS
How to use it
1. Name the problem in terms of its effects, ideally including quantification.
2. Identify the major categories of causes.
3. Brainstorm to identify all the possible causes under each of the main cause headings(follow
the rules of Brainstorming).
4. Analyse the possible causes and identify any linkages between the possible causes.
5. Evaluate the most likely causes, or combinations, and agree to focus on these for further
6. investigation or quick fixes.
PROCESS PEOPLE
No process Untrained staff
Batches too big Does this
causethis?
Variations?
1. Write the possible causes on sticky notes or cards without reference to where they fit in the
diagram; then arrange the cards into a Cause and Effect Diagram.
2. Use a Process Flowchart and Brainstorm the possible causes of problems around each of its
steps.
Benefits
• Helps provide a systematic method for communicating with other people about a problem or
situation that needs to beimproved
• Encourages you to distinguish between the problem and its possiblecauses
• Encourages you to identify all possible causes, thereby increasing the likelihood that you
won’t ignore the real causes
Ground rules for success

• Use large diagrams and ensure everyone can participate
• Examine the relationships and interactions between causes
• Define the problem effect clearly and don’t overload the diagram
PROCESS PEOPLE
PROBLEM
TECHNOLOGY MATERIALS
You may want to use the “5 Whys” technique to help you identify possible causes. This can help
you add extra levels of ideas on your diagram.
The 5 Why: “Monthly Report Was Late”
WHY? Because the printer didn’t work
WHY? Because the paper got jammed

Fixing the printer
WHY? Because someone used the wrong paper is not the solution
WHY? Because no-one knows what the right paperis
WHY? Because there is no written procedure or

user training
CHECKSHEETS
What are they?

Checksheets are a systematic way to collect and record data using a pre-prepared form or matrix.
They list the items to be checked, with sufficient space for entering check marks against each of
the items. They have a number of uses, such as counting ...
• ... the number of defects or errors that occur

• ... the frequency of occurrence of events such as accidents, complaints, enquiries,
compliments
They are also useful for collecting data to identify trends before and after solving aproblem.
CHECKSHEETS
AChecksheet for: “Reasons for late billing”
CAUSE JAN FEB MAR APR TOTAL
Unclear tariff rates 47
No information onaddressee 6
Technical problems with system sold 18
Salespolicy 3
Not informed of billing start date 6
Computer problems 5
Other 2
TOTAL 25 20 23 19 87
CHECKSHEETS
How to use them

1. Establish the categories in which to collectdata
a. Brainstorm a list of potential categories, or

b. Examine some sample defects and attempt to classify them by category (i.e. identify
categories by looking at existing defects)
The final list of categories must cover all possible defect types and the categories must be
mutually exclusive.
2. Decide how long you will collect the data. Enough data must be recorded over a sufficiently
long period to represent the process being studied. A rule of thumb is record data long
enough to accumulate at least 100 checkitems.
CHECKSHEETS
3. Design the checksheet.
4. Brief those who have to collect the data. Everyone collecting the data must understand the
categories in the same way so that each person’s data recording is consistent with everyone
else’s.
5. Record information consistently and honestly, so that you have valid data to analyse.
CHECKSHEETS
Benefits
• They encourage you to distinguish between data categories
• They enable you to collect data in a systematic way
• They organise data in a form which makes it easy to use for other purposes;e.g.
development of a Pareto Diagram, or to identify trends

• Ensure the categories are comprehensive and mutually exclusive
• Let people know what the purpose is and what the data willbe used for
• Those involved in solving a problem should help design the Checksheet
• Repeat the data collection after implementing improvement solutions
CHECKSHEETS
Variations
They may also be used for reminders of tasks to be carried out in a process; i.e. asChecklists.
Task Date Required Done Done By

Book venue 1st June RC
Invite customers 15th June IS
Arrange hospitality etc. 21st June

“THERE ISALWAYSSPACEFORIMPROVEMENT,
NO MATTER HOW LONGYOU’VE BEENIN THE
BUSINESS.”
- Oscar De La Hoya
CONCENTRATIONDIAGRAMS
What are they?

Concentration Diagrams are pictorial Checksheets and are among the simplest of tools to set up
for data collection. They are visual displays of how often and where faults, defects or problems
occur, on a product, on a form, or in a process. By recording the occurrence of defects, they tend
to show a concentration of problems in specificareas.
How to use them

1. Define the fault under investigation.
2. Provide a large drawing or picture of the product, form or process where the fault is
occurring.
3. Leave on display for an appropriate period and ask people to mark on the diagram eachtime
a fault occurs and where it hasoccurred.
4. After a sufficient period analyse the diagram to identify points of fault‘concentration’.
Concentration Diagram Example
x
xx
x xx
x
For example showing

production damages
and defects on apparel
production
xx
Concentration Diagram Example
Showing crime in
a London area
Source: https://www.police.uk/city-of-london/cp/crime/

• Ensure the categories are comprehensive and mutually exclusive
• Let people know what the purpose is and what the data willbe used for
• Those involved in solving a problem should help design the Checksheet
• Repeat the data collection after implementing improvement solutions
Variations
The diagram could be based on:
• A map or site plan • A diagram of a product or machine
• A Process Flowchart • A form or data entry screen

PROCESSFLOWCHARTS
What are they?

Process Flowcharts are used to show the steps in a process. These include the inputs and outputs
as well as the intermediate steps and decision points.
INPUT OUPUT
PROCESS
A process is a series of activities that converts an input to an output, by doing work. Process
Flowcharts create a common understanding of the steps involved in carrying out anyprocess.
They can be used to highlight opportunities to streamline a process, making it both more
effective and more efficient.
PROCESSFLOWCHARTS
SequenceFlowchart
No Separate
Process
Raise
Authorise Write Job Place Job Receive Select Arrange Interview Select New Appoint New
Recruitment
Recruitment Advert Advert Applications Shortlist Interviews Candidates Recruit Recruit
Request
If nobodysuitable
PROCESSFLOWCHARTS
How to use them

1. Define the process – agree on the start and endboundaries.
2. Identify the actual process steps – brainstorm to identify the current steps (use Verb +Noun
names; e.g. Select Shortlist).
3. Arrange the process steps in sequence, linked by arrows; if some activities occur in parallel,
arrange them beside each other (if the flow is top to bottom) or below each other (if the flow
is left to right).
4. Analyse the resulting diagram – clarify any outstanding misunderstandings; transfer the
diagram to paper.
PROCESSFLOWCHARTS
Analysing the Flowchart

Look at the Diagram and ask:
• Are all the stepsnecessary?
• Are any steps missing?
• Where could delays or errors occur?
• Can the process be simplified?
• Do the outputs meet customerrequirements? Processes only exist to
meet the requirements
For the process inputs and outputs: of customers.
Who are the process
• Are there clear, specified and agreed standards?
customers and what
• Is there adequate feedback?
do they think?
PROCESSFLOWCHARTS
For each process step:

The results we achieve
• Do people have the necessary skills?
depend on how well
• Are the facilities/equipment adequate?
people design, operate
• Is it possible to measureperformance? and improve our
• Is the step necessary? (what value does it add?) processes.
• What impact would defects or errors have?
Benefits
• Capture and combine knowledge of everyone involved with aprocess
• Help ensure a common understanding of how a processworks
• Reveal opportunities for improvement
• Develop ownership of the process through teamwork
PROCESSFLOWCHARTS

• Define the boundaries of the process before beginning to construct theFlow Diagram
• Involve people who operate the process and know the current situation
• Analyse the resulting diagram rigorously, using data and challenging questions
• Work logically and dispassionately – remember the aim is improvement
• Focus on how the process meets the needs of its customers, not on existing constraints or
organisation
• Don’t get “hung up”on producing the world’s most perfect Flow Diagram; use the symbols
only if they add to peoples’ understanding of the process
Variations
A variation on the linear, Sequence Flowchart above is the Responsibility Flowchart, which
identifies who does each step.
PROCESSFLOWCHARTS
Responsibility Flow
Respond
Extern
Sales
Receive PassTo
To
al
Enquiry Planning
Customer
Interna
Complete Produce
Sales
Request Completed
l
Form Estimate
Costin
Produce Sign Off

Dept.
Cost Cost
Estimate Estimate
g
Plannin
Produce
Dept.
LeadTime
g
Estimate
“YOU CAN’T MANAGE
WHATYOUDON’T MEASURE”
- W. Edward Deming
DATAHANDLING ANDDISPLAY
What is it?
Various techniques designed to help you gather and display data in pictorialform.
Why use it?

A picture is “worth a thousand words!” and therefore aids communications and adds impact to
your readers. In addition, it is more likely to highlight trends and relationships in data.
How to use it?

Techniques included are:
• Tally Sheets • Frequency Distribution • Histograms

• Line Graph • Pie Charts • Scatter Graphs
Tally Sheets
Provide a quick and adaptable way of recording data. They are also known as Checksheets.
Customer Complaints - May
Complaint Type Week One Week Two Week Three Week Four Total
A 9
B 24
C 5
D 2
Total 10 6 7 17 20
Two quick conclusions can be drawn from this Tally Sheet. Complaints occur most frequently in
the last week of the month and on type “B” complaints.
Frequency Distribution
The tally results produce a 'bell
shape' curve of the Normal
Distribution displayingAVERAGE
and SPREAD.
Frequency
169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180
Height of Males (centimetres)

The normal measure of the average is known as the MEAN. The mean is calculated by adding all
the values together and dividing by the number of values. This gives you a summary measureof
the central point of thedata.
Two other measures of the average are the MEDIAN and the MODE.
The median is the middle value when the values are arranged in ascending/descendingorder.
The mode is the most commonly occurring value in a set of data.
The simplest measure of spread is the RANGEbetween the highest and lowestvalues.
The most accurate way of measuring spread is the STANDARDDEVIATION, which is the average
difference between the values and the mean.
Frequency Histogram
Histograms show the frequency distribution over a range of values. They show how frequently
the measurement values occur. The main use of a histogram is to assess the variability in a
population, or in aprocess.
The height of the bars in a histogram indicates how frequently that value ofdata occurs. The
tallest bar is the most frequently occurring datavalue.
If you have a wide distribution, it is more likely that common causes of variation are present. It
may be difficult to remove enough of these causes to narrow the overall range of variation
present in aprocess.
Histogram
35
30
25
Number of Men
This Histogram was drawn from

20
the Frequency Distributiondata.
15
10
0
169 170 171 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180
Height in Centimetres
Line Graph
A Line Graph (also known as a Run Chart) is a graphical representation of a variable, plotted over
time to show a trend. Line Graph usesinclude:
• Determining visually, but not statistically, the stability of a process; i.e. is it “in control”?
• Monitoring progress towards a desired goal
• Determining whether a process exhibits a cyclic or any other type of pattern
Line Graph
Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Etc.
Shortages 32 78 128 84 60 2 136 120 110 42
160
In this Line Graph we are
140
plotting the number of shortage
120 items from orders eachweek.
Number of Items
100
80
60
40
Shows a situation out of 20

control - but,nevertheless, 0
there is an underlying 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
trend. Date/Week Number
Pie Charts
Shows a complete set of data and the proportions represented by each component of thewhole,
at any one point in time.
10% It can be used to show, for example:

25%
%of different products sold
25%
%of different error types
%of different customer groups
20%
%of different stock items held
20%
%of different staff grades
Pie charts are used to emphasise a particular segment and relative proportions.
Scatter Graphs
The scatter graph is a graphical method of determining the relationship between two ormore
variables, for example to see if there is a cause and effect relationship.
Draw the cause axis horizontally and the effect axis vertically.
Correlation is the term which indicates how the two variables are related. Scatter Graphs can be
used to show a positive or negative correlation between two variables, or to demonstrate that
there is no correlation.
Scatter Graphs
Line of xx xx x x x xxxx
xx x
best fit x x x x x x x
x x
x x x
x x x x
Strong Weak None
• Do we get more errors when we get more work?

• Do we get more complaints because we've sold more products?
• Do we get longer queues when we've got fewer staff?
Line of best fit

Having drawn the scatter diagram, can a straight line be drawn to represent the relationship
between the variables?
A line of best fit does not prove a cause and effect relationship between the two variables. It is
evidence that further investigation is worthwhile to test the theory further.
With a positive correlation, the value of one variable increases in line with the other variable.
With a negative correlation, the value of one variable decreases as the other oneincreases.
PARETOANALYSIS
What is it?
The Pareto Principle, which underpins Pareto Analysis, says that a small number of causes of
problems (the vital few) have a great effect on performance, while a large number of causes (the
trivial many) have a much smaller effect. It is also known as the 80/20 Rule whereby 80% of
problems are the result of 20% of the causes. The principle is named after Vilfredo Pareto, a19th
Century Italian economist whose research showed that 80% of the wealth was owned by 20% of
the population.
PARETOANALYSIS
The main purpose of Pareto Analysis is to

The ‘Vital Few’ enable the identification and separation of the
Causes main issues from other less significant issues.
Attention can then be focused on finding the
causes of the most important problems.They
80% can also be used to make comparisons, e.g.
between different processes, or before and
after improvement.
20%
PARETOANALYSIS
How to use them

1. Identify the problems to be investigated, the categories of data and the means of collecting
the data.
2. Develop a Checksheet for collecting the data.
3. Collect the data using the Checksheet.
4. Develop and complete a data sheet with the data arranged in decreasing order of size (e.g.
frequency, cost or time).
5. Construct the Pareto Diagram, including scales, bars, cumulative curve and cumulative values.
PARETOANALYSIS
Pareto Data Table
Cumulative
Causes Frequency % Cumulative
Frequency
A Unclear tariff rates 47 47 54 54
B Technical problems with systemssold 18 65 21 75
C No information on addressee 6 71 7 82
D Not informed of billing startdate 6 77 7 88
E Computer problems 5 82 6 94
F Sales policy 3 85 3 98
G Other 2 87 2 100
This is the Pareto Data Table from the previous Checksheet example: 'Reasons for late billing'.
PARETOANALYSIS
Pareto Diagram
50 120
45
100
40
35
80
The data in this 30
graph relatesto
Frequen
the ParetoData 25 60 %
Frequency
cy
Table on the 20
Cumulative%
previous page. 40
15 Cut Off
10
20
5
0 0
A B C D E F G
Causes
PARETOANALYSIS
Benefits
• Simplifies and clarifies your understanding of the problem you are trying to solve byfocusing
on the areas of most importance
• It is easier to reduce the most frequently occurring problem by half than to reduce a rare
occurrence to zero
• Quick results build confidence
• Many causes produce multiple types of defects. Removing the causes of one problem often
also removes the causes and therefore occurrences of other problems
• Enables comparisons to be made between different processes
PARETOANALYSIS

• Avoid dealing with the symptoms rather than the causes ofproblems
• Use categories in the diagram which are mutually exclusive
• Use Pareto Analysis as a means of increasing knowledge of a problem
• Make sure the data is representative of the problem, taking into account the effect of day-to-
day variation
• Don’t ignore problems that are not among the most frequentlyoccurring. They may, for
example, have a big effect on cost and perhaps be fixed easily
FORCEFIELDANALYSIS
What is it?
Force Field Analysis is a tool for identifying the forces which help or hinder a change you want to
make.
Why use it?

• To improve any situation that requires achange
• To understand what is working for and against any proposal
• To identify which forces cannot bechanged
• To help plan how to overcome barriers to change
FORCEFIELDANALYSIS
How to use it
1. Construct a Force Field Diagram, with the improvement target defined and brainstorm
positive and negative forces.
Desired Improvement Target

Positive
+
-
Negative
FORCEFIELDANALYSIS
How to use it
2. Analyse the diagram using an analysis sheet to determine the degree of ability to change and
the effect of eachforce.
3. Decide a course of action which encourages the positive and discourages the negative forces
by selecting those forces which have received a high score on the analysis sheet.
Variations
Rather than doing a full scoring analysis, ask people to vote on the strongest positive and
negative forces (3 votes for each). Then focus on actions in the six highest scoring areas.
FORCEFIELDANALYSIS
Force Field AnalysisExample
Target: Improve accuracyof

expenseclaims
Positive
Knowledge
of Company
Knowledge
of Revenue
Thoroughness
of
Thoroughness
of Approver
Clarity of
ClaimForm
Ease of useof
Claim Form
System
Knowledge
+
Policy Rules
Claimants
Complexity Complexity Dishonesty System No. of

of Company of Revenue Complexity Payment
Policy Rules Methods -
Negative
FORCEFIELDANALYSIS
Analysis Sheet
Positive Forces Negative Forces
Ability to Effect Overall Abilityto Effect Overall
Influence Influence
Knowledge of CompanyPolicy 5 6 30 Complexity of CompanyPolicy 1 4 4
Knowledge of Revenue Rules 5 2 10 Complexity of System 5 2 10
Thoroughness of Claimants 3 6 18 No. of PaymentMethods 4 1 4
Thoroughness of Approver 2 3 6
Clarity of ClaimForm 10 8 80
Ease of use of ClaimForm 8 6 48
System Knowledge 5 1 5
Cannot influence: Complexity of Revenue Rules; Dishonesty

FORCEFIELDANALYSIS

• Be clear about the target for improvement
• Ensure maximum participation in brainstorming the forces
• Identify those forces which can and can’t be influenced
• Include action on both the positive and negativeforces
RANKING AND RATING
What is it?
Ranking is the structured process of placing a number of options in order ofpreference, by using
a scoring system called rating. It is a decision-making tool.
Why use it?

• To assist the choice of the best option (e.g. which problem tosolve, which solution to
implement)
• To make the choice less emotional and morelogical
• To increase the ownership of the chosen option
• To maximise the effective use of available resources
RANKING AND RATING
How to use it
1. List the options.
2. List the selection criteria.
3. Categorise the criteria into “essential” and“desirable”.
4. Test the options against the “essential” criteria.
5. Rate the remaining options against the “desirable” criteria.

• List the options and agree the criteria before doing anyevaluation
• Separate out the essential and desirable criteria
RANKING AND RATING
Ranking and Rating: Example

Selection Criteria Possible Projects
Essential A B C D E F
Improves Service
Highly Visible
3 – 5 Months To Do
Saves Time
Desirable Weight
Saves Money 10 10 10 4 6
Low Cost 7 5 4 0 5
2 – 3 Months ToDo 7 7 7 0 2
Totals 22 21 4 13
RANKING AND RATING
In the example above we are trying to decide which is the best project to carry out. Project A
meets all the essential criteria and scores best against the desirable criteria. It is our first choice
project, closely followed by Project B.

• List the options and agree the criteria before doing anyevaluation
• Separate out the essential and desirable criteria
SOLUTION EFFECTANALYSIS
What is it?
A Solution Effect diagram is a Cause and Effect diagram in reverse.
Why use it?

• To check if your solution solves theproblem
• To compare effects of differentsolutions
• To ensure your problem does not cause biggerproblems
• To identify what other actions may be necessary to implement your solution successfully
How to use it
1. Identify the solution to be tested (e.g. Implement newI.T. system).
2. Identify the major categories to be used (e.g. Money, Materials, People,Process).
3. Brainstorm to identify the effects of the solution, for each of the major categories.
4. From the diagram, analyse the potential effects and identify the key actions required to ensure
successful implementation.
MONEY TECHNOLOGY
Effect
PEOPLE PROCESS
Solution Effect Analysis

MONEY MATERIALS
Projectors
Lost production Consultants Rooms
Screen
Overtime Furniture Flipchart
Cover / Temps
Paper
Quality improved
Implement Pens
ProblemSolving
Training Trainers
Ensuring How
Co-ordinator attendance many?
Attitudes Evaluation
Manager Communications Working
Skills Follow up
briefings together
PEOPLE PROCESS
Variations
Brainstorm positive effects on one side of each line and negative effects on the other, or use
different coloured pens (green for positive, red for negative).

• Use large diagrams
• Test your proposed solution in theory, before implementation
• Involve a representative selection of those affected by a proposed solution
• Check whether the effects are not worse than the originalproblem
• Identify unexpected results – be creative
• Do not ignore any adverse effects
• Follow Brainstorming rules
FAILUREPREVENTIONANALYSIS
What is it?
Failure Prevention Analysis is a tool which will help you to anticipate problems before they
happen.
When to use it
• On any new activity
• Whenever a significant change is planned
• Where consequences of failure are potentially major
How to use it
1. Identify the potential problems by brainstorming “what could gowrong?”
2. Rank each possible failure by designating a probability and consequence factor, using a scale
of 0-10 for each. Calculate an overall risk rating by multiplying the two factors together.
FPRExample: Launch a New Product

Possible Failure Probability Consequence Overall Rating Ranking
Late delivery of rawmaterials 8 1 8 6 Thehighest

risk
Unable to obtainraw materials 1 10 10 5 of failure here
is that the
Machine not suitable 3 10 30 2
‘machine
Machine not available 5 10 50 1 won't
be available'
Paperwork not available 6 3 18 5 when needed.
Operator training not carried out 3 2 6 7
Methods of measurementnot 3 7 21 3
determined
3. Examine the root causes of the key potential failures.

4. Identify actions that prevent failure (or re-think the decision to implement if failure cannot be
avoided or minimised).
In some cases, it must be recognised that there will always be a risk of failure, because all the
root causes cannot be eliminated. In these cases action should be taken to minimise the riskof
failure or minimising the effects of anyfailure.
In other words, you may need to identifyboth:

• PreventativeActions
• ContingencyActions

• Have a clear understanding of the activity to beanalysed
• List the possible failures before evaluating them
• Rank the potential failures, noting both probability andconsequences
• Be clear whether internal (e.g. cost), or external (e.g. customer satisfaction) consequences are to be
compared
• Look to eliminate root causes
• Involve those who may be affected by a solution in identifying 40 and analysing the risks
FPAis a great technique to involve all those people whosay:

• "We tried it before and it didn't work"
• "It'll never work because..."
• "They'd never let us doit"
• "It's a good idea but..."
PROBLEM SOLVINGSUMMARY
The problem solving process and tools should be used:

• By individuals and teams
• By all functions within an organisation
• As part of a Continuous Improvement strategy
Good problem solving is the result of:
• An effective, systematic process
• Disciplined use of appropriate tools
• Teamwork and collaboration
Effective teams result from:

• Strong leadership
• A supportive environment
• Strong communication between team members
• The ability to listen
• The ability of team members tobuild on one another’s ideas
The Matrix on the following page will help you identify which tools to use at each stage ofthe
Problem Solving process.
Definethe Identifypossible Investigat Analyse data and Developpossible Select andtest Implementatio
problem causes e and identify root cause solutions solutions n stages
fix
Brainstorming
Cause and Effect Analysis
Checksheet
Concentration Diagrams
Process Flowcharts
Data Handling andDisplay
Pareto Analysis
Force Field Analysis
Ranking and Rating
Solutions Effect Analysis
Failure Prevention Analysis

WHAT IS CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT?
Continuous Improvement is a process that enables organisations to ensure they are continuously
meeting agreed customer requirements, at the lowest cost, by releasing the potential of all
employees.
It means:
• Our customers decide what the standards are
• We may need to balance the different needs of customers, partners and other stakeholders
• Reducing our total costs by getting things on time and right first time, every time
• Avoiding waste and delays by eliminating errors
• Only doing the right things – thatmeet customers’ and partners’ needs – adding value not
cost
• Continuously challenging the way we do things to see if there is a betterway
• Harnessing everyone’s commitment to improvement, including leaders, employees, suppliers
and other partners
It isnot
• Aluxury
Implementation stages 5. Select& 1. Identify
• Just meeting our own standards If viable: Test Possible
Define the problem
Solutions Cause
• Doing things on the cheap Review/re-start
If not viable 4. Identify 2.
• Optional Possible Investigate
Solutions & Fix
3.Analyse
Data &
IdentifyRoot
Causes
The Problem Solving Process, plus the tools and techniques, are essential elements of a
Continuous Improvement strategy.
Successful Continuous Improvement needs to be controlled and managed just like any process.
Some of the most common causes of failure of the Continuous Improvement processinclude:
• Lots of activity and few early results

• Lack of strategic focus and planning
• No key targets and measures
• Seen as a “bolt-on” to the daily work
The key is to focus on achievement and avoid the “activity trap”, where everyone appears busy,
but nothing improves.
There are some fundamental things that need to be in place to supportContinuous Improvement
and ensure success.
The Problem
CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT Solving
Process
fits here.
Leadership Plans Teams Support

and And For
Priorities Tools People
In this Guide we have focused on a problem solving process and a set of basic improvement tools
that can be used by teams and individuals.
In addition to this, weneed:

• Clear direction and leadership from managers at alllevels
• A way to prioritise improvement opportunities and include these in our overallplans
• Time, training, encouragement and support for people when they get involvedin
improvement activities
Some of the most successful organisations have used problem solving as a starting point for their
improvement processes. Today it is integral to the way they address areas for improvement.
Improvement process evolution

Most organisations go through a series of distinct phases in their ContinuousImprovement
journey ...
Phase 1: Survival
• Recognising threats and business challenges
• Prioritisation of key areas for improvement by senior management
• Managers and staff are trained in problem solving
• Teams and individuals work at solving problems, using the tools
• Quick wins and improvements are achieved
• Quantified benefits are demonstrated – failure costs are reduced
• Facilitators work with, and provide support to, improvementchampions
Phase 2: Prevention
• Key business processes are identified
• Managers and staff are trained in processmanagement
• Processes are owned, managed and brought under control
• Customer satisfaction improves as a result of process improvements
• Managers coach staff in improvement skills
Phase 3: Continuous Improvement
• Customer delight is the goal
• Staff are truly empowered and fully involved in improvementactivities
• Processes are benchmarked and achieve world class performance
• Self-Assessment using an Excellence Model is integral with business
• planning
• Achieving award winning scores in national quality awards
The road to Excellence is never-ending.

Continuous Improvement is a journey,
not adestination.
CHECKLIST
Yes No Comments
1. Defined the problem fully?
2. Decided who to involve in helping to solve the
problem?
3. Identified all the possiblecauses?
4. Carried out any quick fixes to sort it out now?
5. Collected data to quantify theproblem?
6. Analysed the data to identify the root causes?
7. Identified possible solutions?
8. Chosen a workable solution?
9. Tested your solution?
10. Put together a plan for implementation?
11. Implemented your solution?
12. Measured the results to see ifyour solution worked?
ABOUT TQMILtd
TQMI is a training and management consultancy specialising in Continuous Improvement. We help

organisations achieve excellence through consulting, coaching and training. Our extensive experience covers
all Continuous Improvement tools and approaches. We have worked with some of the country’s leading
organisations to help them outperform, improve processes, engage staff, delight customers and maximise
results.
Established in 1987 we have trained thousands of people at all levels and in all sectors. If you would like to
discussyour needs, please, do not hesitate to contactus.
www.tqmi.co.uk
t: +44 (0)1928 734266
TQMI Ltd, Charter House,

63 Main Street, Frodsham,
Consulting | Training | Improvement | Operational Excellence
Cheshire, WA6 7DF

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Business Problem Solving-

• Introduction • Pareto Analysis

Customers Community Shareholders Competitors

Government CONTINUOUSIMPROVEMENT Suppliers

Other Employees Technology Regulators

“Our problem is poormorale” This is likely to be a SYMPTOM of more

Why use it?

The Problem Solving Process

Review/ re-start 4. Identify 2.

The problem solving process has three separate

One or more of the tools and techniques, suchas

Define the Problem

Problem definition example

INSIDE THE PROBLEM OUTSIDE THE PROBLEM

WHEN? In the past 6days Backlogs were acceptable

STEP1: Identify PossibleCauses

Main tools to use: • Brainstorming

Other possible tools: • Process Flowcharts

STEP2: Investigate And Fix

Main tools to use: • Checksheets

Other possible tools: • Process Flowcharts

STEP3: Analyse Data And Identify Root Causes

How: Use analysis tools to find the cause(s) which, if 1. Identify

Fixes vs. Root Causes – examples:

Problem Possible Fix Possible Root Causes

STEP4: Identify PossibleSolutions

Main tools to use: • Brainstorming

STEP5: Select And Test Solutions

Main tools to use: • Ranking and Rating

Other possible tools: • Force Field Analysis

Why use it?

Why use it?

You will realise from this list, that

Rules for Brainstorming

Online Offline Direct

Cause and Effect Example

Not enough res-breaks New staff

Ground rules for success

The 5 Why: “Monthly Report Was Late”

WHY? Because the printer didn’t work

WHY? Because the paper got jammed

WHY? Because there is no written procedure or

What are they?

• ... the number of defects or errors that occur

AChecksheet for: “Reasons for late billing”

CAUSE JAN FEB MAR APR TOTAL

Unclear tariff rates 47

Technical problems with system sold 18

Not informed of billing start date 6

How to use them

a. Brainstorm a list of potential categories, or

3. Design the checksheet.

Ground rules for success

Task Date Required Done Done By

Invite customers 15th June IS

Arrange hospitality etc. 21st June

What are they?

How to use them

Concentration Diagram Example

For example showing

Concentration Diagram Example

Ground rules for success

• A map or site plan • A diagram of a product or machine