Transmission Line Lecture 1revised

TRANSMISSION
LINES
LESSON NO. 2
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you shall be able to:
• Understand what a transmission line and its applications

• Identify the different types of transmission lines.
• Determine the LUMPED CONSTANTS of a transmission line.
• Analyze mathematically the transmission line parameters using the
DISTRIBUTED CONSTANTS.
• Calculate CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE and determine its
significance to achieve efficient energy transfer.
• Learn transmission line impedance matching with the source and load.
• Explain the effects of signal reflections in a transmission line.
• Understand the significance of STANDING WAVES as applied to a
transmission line.
• Learn how to use the Smith Chart in different transmission line
applications.
What is a transmission line?
TRANSMISSION LINES - is a two conductor wire

system with the wires in close proximity,
providing relative impedance, velocity and
closed current return path to the source.
- These are devices for guiding electrical energy

from one point to another. It is used, for
example, to transfer the output RF energy of a
transmitter to an antenna.
Transmission media:
1. Metallic cable (wire)
2. Optical fiber (dielectric non-conductor
transmission medium)
3. Waveguides (hollow tubes/guide)
4. Radio transmission (wireless)
Two types of metallic cable:

1. Parallel lines
2. Coaxial Cable
Transmission Lines
• Metallic
1. Parallel Wire Pair
• FM and TV antenna
2. Twisted Wire Pair
• Phone line
• 10BaseT Ethernet
3. Coaxial Cable
• RG58
4. Metallic Conduit
5. Planar Striplines
 Printed circuit board
 Hybrid IC carrier
• Dielectric
– Fiber Optics
• Glass
• Polymer
Parallel Lines
• Parallel lines are typically
balanced lines, the
impedance to ground
from each of the wires
being equal.
• Balanced refers to the

signals being the same
level but opposite in
polarity.
PARALLEL LINES
 TWO-WIRE OPEN LINES are
parallel lines and have uses
such as power lines, rural
telephone lines, and
telegraph lines.
This type of line has high

radiation losses and is
subject to noise pickup.
 TWIN LEAD has parallel

lines and is most often used
to connect televisions to
their antennas.
A TWISTED PAIR consists of two
insulated wires twisted together. This line
has high insulation loss.
Network Cables
Cat 3, 4, 5, 5E, 6, ..
DSL wiring at home
Coaxial cable
Coaxial Lines
• Two conductors are
concentric,
separated by an
insulating dielectric
• Coaxial cables are

unbalanced
because of their
lack of symmetry
with regard to
ground
A SHIELDED PAIR
has parallel conductors

separated by a solid dielectric
and surrounded by copper
braided tubing. The conductors
are balanced to ground.
RIGID COAXIAL LINE
contains two concentric conductors

insulated from each other by spacers.
Some rigid coaxial lines are
pressurized with an inert gas to
prevent moisture from entering. High-
frequency losses are less than with
other lines.
FLEXIBLE COAXIAL
LINES consist of a flexible
inner conductor and a
concentric outer conductor of
metal braid. The two are
separated by a continuous
insulating material.
Coaxial Cables
Attenuation in
Coax Velocity
db per 100 feet Description
Factor
(On 27MHz)
RG-8 1.15 dB .66 50 Ohm coax
RG-59 2.0 dB .66 75 Ohm coax
RG-8/U Foam 0.85 dB .80 50 Ohm coax, Foam Dielectric
RG-59/U Foam 1.5 dB .79 75 Ohm coax, Foam Dielectric
Belden 9913 0.7 dB .84 Premium 50 Ohm coax
1/2" Hardline 0.35 dB .81 Special coax, expensive!
RG-8X (Mini-8) 1.2 dB .78 Small 50 Ohm coax. Preferred
over RG-58. Recommended for
mobile installations.
RG-58 2.35 dB .66 50 Ohm coax
RG-213 1.35 dB .66 50 Ohm coax.
RG-11/U Foam 0.85 dB .80 75 Ohm coax.
RG-11/U 1.35 dB .66 75 Ohm coax
http://www.rfcafe.com/references/electrical/coax_chart.htm
WAVEGUIDES are hollow metal tubes used to transfer energy from one point to another. The
energy travels slower in a waveguide than in free space.
Striplines
• Micro Stripline
• Embedded Stripline
• Coplanar Stripline
• Loss
– Metallic
• Skin depth
• Localized current flow
– Dielectric
• Loss tangent
– Surface roughness
Microstrip line
TRANSMISSION LINE ELECTRICAL
PROPERTIES & PARAMETERS
LENGTH OF A TRANSMISSION LINE
• A transmission line is considered to be electrically short

when its physical length is short compared to a quarter-
wavelength ¼  of the energy it is to carry.
• A transmission line is electrically long when its physical

length is long compared to a quarter-wavelength of the
energy it is to carry.
Example:
A line that has a physical length of 3 meters

(approximately 10 feet) is considered quite short
electrically if it transmits a radio frequency of 30 KHz. On
the other hand, the same transmission line is considered
electrically long if it transmits a frequency of 30,000 MHz.
To show the difference in physical and electrical lengths of the

lines mentioned above, compute the wavelength of the two
frequencies, taking the 30-kilohertz example first:
Now, computing the wavelength for the line carrying 30,000
megahertz:
Thus, you can see that a 3-meter line is electrically very short for a
frequency of 30 kilohertz. Also, the 3-meter line is electrically very
long for a frequency of 30,000 megahertz.
MODE OF PROPAGATION IN
TRANSMISSION LINES
TRANSVERSE ELECTROMAGNETIC (TEM)
The electric and magnetic field wave intensities

propagating in a transmission line are
transverse to the direction of wave propagation.
This is in the assumption of no loss in the

transmission lines.
TRANSMISSION LINE
ELECTRICAL MODEL
Transmission Lines 23
TRANSMISSION LINE ELECTRICAL MODEL
 An equivalent circuit of a transmission line can be

developed by considering a pair of straight wires of equal
size; this line is known as the parallel wire line.
 Since the wires are of uniform size , the RESISTANCE of

the conducting material of which the wires are made may
be assumed to be uniformly distributed along their lengths.
 The magnetic field links the wires and hence an

INDUCTANCE is said to be present .This is distributed
uniformly along the length of the line. Since this inductance
impedes the current flow , it is effectively in series with
the uniformly distributed resistance .
CONSTANTS are inductance, capacitance and resistance that are
distributed along the transmission line.
TRANSMISSION LINE ELECTRICAL MODEL
 The fact that the input and output currents are different
suggest the possibility of an ADMITTANCE between the
wires .
 This shunt admittance consists of a conductance and a

capacitance in parallel.
 The presence of CAPACITANCE is because the line

consists of two conductors separated by air-dielectric.
Because the dielectric is not perfect , a conduction current
will flow between the wires.
 This leakage path may be represented by a conductance

between the wires.
Conductance causes Leakage Current
 LEAKAGE CURRENT flows between the two wires due to the

dielectric, even air, is not a perfect insulator, a small current
known as. In effect, the insulator acts as a resistor, permitting
current to pass between the two wires.
 This property is called CONDUCTANCE (G) and is the opposite

of resistance. Conductance in transmission lines is expressed as
the reciprocal of resistance and is usually given in micro mhos
per unit length.
The transmission line model represents the transmission line as an
infinite series of two-port elementary components, each representing
an infinitesimally short segment of the transmission line:
1. The distributed resistance R of the conductors - series

resistor (Ω per unit length).
2. The distributed inductance L (due to the magnetic field

around the wires, self-inductance, etc.) - series
inductor (H per unit length).
3. The capacitance C between the two conductors- shunt

capacitor C (F per unit length).
4. The conductance G of the dielectric material

separating the two conductors - shunt resistor
between the signal wire and the return wire (S per unit
length).
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSMISSION LINE
Lumped Element Model for a Transmission Line
A short segment Δx of transmission line can be modeled as a

lumped-element circuit.
DRIVING AN INFINITE TRANSMISSION LINE.
Equivalent circuit showing stray capacitance between conductors.
Voltage applied between two conductors creates an electric field between those
conductors. Energy is stored in this electric field, and this storage of energy results in an
opposition to change in voltage.
Equivalent circuit showing stray capacitance and inductance.
Voltage charges capacitance, current charges inductance.

Uncharged transmission line.
Begin wave propagation.

Continue wave propagation.
Electrical signal propagate at speed of light.
• The end result of these interactions is a constant current of limited magnitude
through the battery source.
• Since the wires are infinitely long, their distributed capacitance will never fully charge
to the source voltage, and their distributed inductance will never allow unlimited
charging current.
• This pair of wires will draw current from the source so long as the switch is closed,
behaving as a constant load.
• No longer are the wires merely conductors of electrical current and carriers of
voltage, but now constitute a circuit component in themselves, with unique
characteristics.
• No longer are the two wires merely a pair of conductors, but rather a transmission
line.
Transmission Line Equivalent Circuit
• A transmission line is a distributed-

parameter network, where voltages and
currents can vary in magnitude and phase
over the length of the line.
35
Equivalent electrical circuits
simple model consisting of distributed inductors and capacitors.
Unbalanced line
Balanced line
LUMPED CONSTANTS are theoretical properties (inductance, resistance,
and capacitance) of a transmission line that are lumped into a single
component.
The Lossy Transmission Line Model
In the lossy transmission line model, the series
resistance and dielectric conductance are introduced
into the equivalent circuit model.
The Lossless Transmission Line Model
In the lossless transmission line model, only the
distributed capacitance (C) and inductance (L) of the
interconnect is considered:
R  jωL
Z0  G  jωC
Ohm (Ω)
Characteristic Impedance of a Line
• The characteristic impedance depends upon the electrical
properties of the line, according to the formula:
R  jωL
Z0  G  jωC
(Ω)
Where: R = resistance (ohms)

L = inductive component
C = capacitive component
G = admittance
When does a T-line become a T-Line?
 Whether it is a bump
or a mountain
depends on the ratio
of its size (tline) to
the size of the
When do we need to
vehicle (signal
use transmission line
wavelength)
analysis techniques vs.
lumped circuit
analysis?
 Similarly, whether or
not a line is to be
considered as a
transmission line
depends on the ratio
of length of the line
(delay) to the
wavelength of the
applied frequency or
Wavelength/edge rate Tline the rise/fall edge of
the signal
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS IN THE TRANSMISSION LINE
 The distributed constants of resistance, inductance, and

capacitance are basic properties common to all
transmission lines and exist whether or not any current
flow exists.
 As soon as current flow and voltage exist in a

transmission line, another property becomes quite
evident.
 This is the presence of an electromagnetic field, or lines

of force, about the wires of the transmission line.
 The lines of force themselves are not visible; however,

understanding the force that an electron experiences
while in the field of these lines is very important to your
understanding of energy transmission.
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS IN THE TRANSMISSION LINE
There are two kinds of fields;

one is associated with voltage
and the other with current.
 The field associated with

voltage is called the
ELECTRIC (E) FIELD. It
exerts a force on any
electric charge placed in it.
 The field associated with

current is called a
MAGNETIC (H) FIELD,
because it tends to exert a
force on any magnetic pole
placed in it.
Transmission line parameters &
Characteristic Impedance of
Coaxial & Parallel Lines
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE (Z0)
 is also known as natural impedance
 it refers to the equivalent resistance of a transmission

line if it were infinitely long, owing to distributed
capacitance and inductance as the voltage and current
“waves” propagate along its length at a propagation
velocity equal to some large fraction of light speed.
 Z0 is the ratio of E to I at every point along the line.
 For maximum transfer of electrical power, the

characteristic impedance and load impedance must be
matched.
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF A
TRANSMISSION LINE
Transmission Line Two-port Network
Characteristic Impedance of COAXIAL LINE
If the transmission line is coaxial in construction, the
characteristic impedance follows a different equation:
Coaxial Cable Unit Parameters
• COAXIAL CABLE
2 0
C
ln( D / d )
0
L ln( D / d )
2
R  jL L 138
Z0    log( D / d )
G  jC C 
1
Vp 
LC
• Loss
– Frequency dependent
– Skin depth
– TEM mode
– Unbalanced 
 
f 
Coaxial cable
er = dielectric constant (relative permittivity) of the medium

(if you don't know take 2.3, Polyethylene), air = 1
e0 = permittivity of free space: 8.8542.10-12 F/m
d - the diameter of the inner conductor
D - the diameter f the outer conductor
µ0- Permeability of a vacuum: 4𝜋×10-7 H/m
µr- relative permeability of the medium: air = 1
Coaxial Cable
The unit series inductance L is:
Coaxial Cable
Relative permittivity (or dielectric constant) εr and a relative
permeability μr if the conductors are considered to be lossless
as per our earlier approximation, the unit shunt capacitance C
is:
Note: 55.6 = 2𝜋𝑥e0x 2.3

Coaxial Cable
• The unit series resistance R is related to the conductivity of the
conductors, and is frequency dependent by way of a phenomenon
known as SKIN EFFECT.
• We begin by first defining a quantity known as the depth of
penetration:
• Where σ is the conductivity of the material.
The current in a conductor will always concentrate on the surface that

is nearest the wave that creates the current , and in the case of coaxial
cable this is the electromagnetic field that exists between the inner
surface of the outer conductor and the inner conductor.
Coaxial Cable
• At high frequencies the skin effect causes the current to
flow only on the outer surface of the inner conductor and
the inner surface of the outer conductor, and this
condition persists as long as the thickness t of the outer
conductor is appreciably greater than the skin depth.
• The surface resistance of the conducting material is:
• Where σ is the conductivity of the material.

Coaxial Cable
VELOCITY FACTOR OF THE CABLE
Vp- phase velocity
In general the relative permeability of most, if not all insulating

materials is close to unity, so the equation above can be comfortably
approximated for coaxial cable as:
Problem 2.2 Calculate the line parameters R, L, G, and C for a coaxial line
with an inner conductor diameter of 0.5 cm and an outer conductor diameter
of 1 cm, filled with an insulating material where µ = µ0, r = 4.5, and s 10-3
S/m. The conductors are made of copper with µc= µ0 and sc= 5.8 x 10-7 S/m.
The operating frequency is 1 GHz.
Unit Resistance for Coaxial Cable
Parallel Lines
Characteristic Impedance
PARALLEL LINE
For a parallel-wire line with air insulation, the characteristic

impedance may be calculated as such:
Parallel line (balanced wire)
Zo = (276 / √er ) log (2 a/d) ()

L = (µrµ0 / π ) ln (2 a/d) (H/m)
C = (π ere0) / ln (2 a/d) (F/m)
Formula constant values
e is electric permittivity
e0= 8.85 X 10-12 F/m (free space)
er = is relative dielectric constant
µ is magnetic permeability
µ0 = 4π X 10-7 H/m (free space)
µr = is relative permeability
Transmission Lines
Example:
Evaluate the velocity of propagation and the characteristic impedance of an

air-filled coaxial cable with radii of the conductors of 3 mm and 6 mm.
Given: a= 3 mm, b= 6 mm; therefore the inductance and capacitance per
unit length are:

ˆL  0 ln  b  4  10 7
6
  ln    0.14  H m
2  a  2  3
2 2  8.854  10 12
Cˆ  0
  80 pF m
ln  b a  ln  6 3
The velocity of propagation is:
1 1
v   3 108 m s
ˆˆ
LC 0.14 106  80 1012
The characteristic impedance of the cable is:
Zc  Lˆ Cˆ  0.14 106 80 1012  42 

Problem:
A transmission line of length l connects a load to a sinusoidal voltage source
with frequency f . Assuming the velocity of wave propagation on the line is c, for
which of the following situations is it reasonable to ignore the presence of the
transmission line in the solution of the circuit:
(a) l = 20 cm, f= 20 kHz, (b) l = 50 km, f= 60 Hz, (c) l = 20 cm, f= 600 MHz,
(d) l = 1 mm, f =100 GHz.
Transmission Line Equations
in a time varying signals (AC)
(Complex Variables)
An equivalent circuit model with the the basic symbol
for a transmission line of length L divided it into small
segments:
TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS:
• The line voltage V(x) and the current I(x) can be expressed in the
frequency domain as
z z
(z) z
z
• When the elements R and G are negligibly small the transmission line is
considered as a lossless structure.
• For a lossless transmission line, the second order steady-state
Telegrapher's equations are:
(z)
z
(z) (z)
z (z)
Using ordinary circuit theory, the relationship between the
voltage and current on the left and right side of the transmission
line segment can be derived:
Taking the limit as dz goes to zero, we end up with a set of
differential equations that relates the voltage and current on
an infinitesimal section of transmission line:
 These equations are known as the telegraphers equations.
Manipulation of these equations in phasor form allow for
second order wave equations to be made for both V and I:
• If R and G are not neglected, the equations become:
• Where:
• ϒ = is the propagation constant

• and the characteristic impedance is:
The solution of the above wave-equations will
reveal the complex nature of transmission lines.
Using ordinary differential equations theory, the
solutions for the above differential equations are
given by:
Characteristic Impedance - Z0
In this case, the line is

referred to as a Lossless Line.
The characteristic impedance
becomes:
Distortionless Line: This type of line may contain
loss (so that the voltage dies off somewhat as it
propagates down the line)
The Propagation Constant:
The propagation constant shows up in the solution for the
spatial variation of the voltage and current waves along the
line. The real part Ƴ is given by ; this represents the rate of
decay of the wave as it travels down the transmission line.
The imaginary part of the propagation constant is given by .

This represents the rate at which the waves oscillate as a
function of position on the line. In contrast, frequency
represents the rate of change of oscillation as function of
time.
Phase Shift constant
• Epsilon is the permittivity of the line,

• Mu is the permeability of the transmission line.
• lambda is the wavelength within the
transmission line: it is not necessarily the
wavelength of a wave of frequency f in free
space.
• For an "air line", the speed u is equal to the
speed of light c.
Impedance on a Lossless Line
• The impedance on a lossless transmission line is
given by the formula:
Z L cos θ  jZ0 sin θ

Z  Z0
Z 0 cos θ  jZ L sin θ
Where ẞ is the phase shift constant:

Characteristic Impedance of a Line
• A terminated transmission line that is matched in its
characteristic impedance is called a matched line.
• The characteristic impedance depends upon the electrical
properties of the line, according to the formula:
R  jωL
Z0  G  jωC
Ω
Where: R = resistance (ohms)

L = inductive component
C = capacitive component
G = admittance
Characteristic Impedance of a Lossless Line
Barring any dissipative effects such as dielectric “leakage”

and conductor resistance, the characteristic impedance of
a transmission to:
Problem 1:
Find the Zo of each of the following lines:
a. Open-wire line with conductors 3 mm in diameter separated by
10 mm.
b. A coaxial cable using polyethylene dielectric having εr = 2.3, with
an inner conductor 2 mm in diameter and an outer conductor
8mm in inside diameter.
a.
b.
Problem 2:
Calculate the impedance looking into a 50Ω line 1 m long, terminated in
a load impedance of 100Ω. If the line has a velocity factor of 0.8 and
operates at a frequency of 30 MHz.
Solution :
To calculate for the impedance looking into a 50Ω line 1 m long, terminated in a
load impedance of 100Ω, if the line has a velocity factor of 0.8 and operates at a
frequency of 30 MHz, is as follows:
ZL+j Zo tan θ
Zin= Zo Ω
Zo+j ZL tan θ
100Ω+𝑗 (50Ω)
Zin= 50Ω
50Ω+𝑗(100Ω)
100Ω+𝑗 (50Ω) tan 450
Zin= 50Ω
50Ω+𝑗(100Ω) tan 450
100Ω+𝑗 (50Ω)
Zin=
1+𝑗2
100Ω+𝑗 (50Ω)(1−𝑗2)
Zin=
(1+𝑗2)(1−𝑗2)
100Ω+𝑗 (50Ω)−𝑗(200Ω) +𝑗(100Ω )

Zin=
(1+4)
200Ω−𝑗(150Ω)
Zin=
5
Zin= (40 − 𝑗30)Ω

Rectangular coordinates are in the Polar coordinates are in the form:
form (x,y), where 'x' and 'y' are the (r,q), where 'r' is the distance from
horizontal and vertical distances the origin to the point, and 'q' is
from the origin: the angle measured from the
positive 'x' axis to the point:
Polar to Rectangular
From the diagram above, these formulas convert polar coordinates

to rectangular coordinates:
x = r cos q, y = r sin q
So the polar point: (r,q) can be converted to rectangular coordinates
like this:
( r cos q, r sin q )  ( x, y )
Example: A point has polar coordinates: (5, 30º). Convert to

rectangular coordinates.
Solution: (x, y) = (5 cos 30º, 5 sin 30º) = (4.3301, 2.5)
2. Rectangular to Polar
Again, from the diagram above, these formulas convert

rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates:
By the rule of Pythagoras:
Tan q = y/x , so therefore: q = tan-1( y/x )
So the rectangular point: (x,y) can be converted to polar

coordinates like this:
( , tan-1( y/x ) )  ( r , q )
Example: A point has rectangular coordinates: (3, 4). Convert

to polar coordinates.
Solution: r = square root of (3² + 4²) = 5, q = tan-1(4/3) =

53.13º
so (r,q) = (5, 53.13º)
Transmission line Input, Output Impedances
INPUT IMPEDANCE is the ratio of voltage to current at the

input end of a transmission line.
OUTPUT IMPEDANCE is the ratio of voltage to current at

the output end of the line.
- OPEN & SHORT CIRCUIT LINE
Sending-end impedance of various lengths and terminations.
In the general case, the input impedance Zin = V(-l) /I(-l)
becomes:
For lossless case we get:
The term ẞ is called the electrical length of the

transmission line.
Some special cases to consider:
Source sees short,
same as end of half
wave length line.
Source sees short, same

as end of full
wavelength line (2x half
wavelength).
OPEN & SHORT CIRCUIT XLINES
Measuring Zo of the x’line
Step and Pulse Response of Lines
 In a line of infinite length, a stepped input signal
will surge forever because of the capacitance of
the line
 The characteristic impedance of the line is also

known as the surge impedance
 The impedance is a real number for a line with no

losses; for example, a 50-ohm line does not refer
to the resistance of the wire in the line, but the
voltage/current ratio as seen by the source
Problem 2.6
A coaxial line with inner and outer diameter of 0.5 cm and 1 cm, respectively,
is filled with an insulating material with Ƹr = 4.5 and ơ = 10-3 S/m. The
conductors are made of copper. Calculate the line parameters at 1 GHz.
Problems (Set 1)
1. The Zo of the transmission line is 300 ohms and terminated by a load

impedance of (300-j300) ohms. What is the line transmission coefficient?
2. A generator of 50 ohms internal impedance and operating at 1 GHz feeds a 75

ohm load via a coaxial line of characteristic impedance of 50 ohms. Calculate
for the VSWR of the line.
3. A 50m ohms lossless transmission line is terminated in a 100 ohms load and is
excited by a 30 MHz source of internal resistance of 50 ohms. What should
be the length of a transmission line for maximum power transfer?
4. A quarter wave transformer made of air-filled coaxial line, matches two

transmission line of characteristic impedance of 50 ohms and 72 ohms
respectively. If the inner conductor of the coaxial line is made 10 mm in
diameter, what should be the diameter of the approximate outer conductor?
5. A transmission line having air dielectric is operated at frequency of 110 MHz.
What is the phase shift constant of the line in degrees per inch?
Set 2
1. A piece of RG-59B/U coaxial cable has a 75Ω characteristic

impedance Zo and nominal capacitance of 69 pF/m. What is its
inductance per meter? If the diameter of the inner conductor is
0.584 mm and the dielectric constant of the insulation is 2.23,
what is the outer conductor diameter?
2. What is the minimum value that the Zo of an air dielectric
parallel-wire line could have?
3. A coaxial cable having an inner diameter of 0.025 mm and using
an insulator with a dielectric constant of 2.56 is to have a Zo of
2000 Ω. What must be the outer conductor diameter?
4. It is required to match a 200 Ω load to a 300 Ω transmission line,
to reduce the SWR along the line to unity (1). What must be the
Zo of the quarter wavelength (λ/4) transformer used for this
purpose if it is connected directly to the load?
Transmission Line Propagation Parameters
Complex Propagation Constant – ϒ
Wave velocity or Phase velocity - V
Reflection Coefficient - Г
Complex Propagation Constant - ϒ
The wave velocity or phase velocity and wavelength are given by:
TEM waves always propagate with velocity:
For lossless transmission lines, we find:

REFLECTIONS ON A TRANSMISSION LINE
 Transmission line characteristics are based on an infinite
line. When a line is not terminated in Z0, the incident
energy is not absorbed but is returned along the only
path available - the transmission line.
 A line cannot always be terminated in its characteristic
impedance since it is sometimes operated as an OPEN-
ENDED line and other times as a SHORT-CIRCUIT at the
receiving end.
 If the line is open-ended, it has a terminating impedance
that is infinitely large. If a line is not terminated in
characteristic impedance, it is said to be finite.
- Sending-end impedance of various lengths and terminations.
When AC is applied to an OPEN-END line, voltage is always reflected back in phase
with the incident wave and current is reflected back out of phase.
When AC is applied to a SHORT-CIRCUITED line, voltage is reflected in
opposite phase, while current is reflected in phase.
A NONRESONANT line has NO STANDING
WAVES of current and voltage and is either
infinitely long or terminated in its characteristic
impedance.
A RESONANT line has STANDING WAVES of

current and voltage and is of finite length and is
not terminated in its characteristic impedance.
TERMINATING A TRANSMISSION LINE
Since no reflections occur, all the energy traveling down the

line is absorbed by the load which terminates the line. Since
no standing waves are present, this type of line is sometimes
spoken of as a FLAT LINE.
In addition, because the load impedance of such a line is equal

to Z0, no special tuning devices are required to effect a
maximum power transfer; hence, the line is also called an
UNTUNED LINE.
RESONANT LINES
The load impedance is different from the Z0 of the

line; therefore, the input impedance may not be
purely resistive but may have reactive components.
Tuning devices are used to eliminate the reactance

and to bring about maximum power transfer from
the source to the line. Therefore, a resonant line is
sometimes called a TUNED LINE.
RESONANT LINES
 The line also may be used for a resonant or tuned

circuit. A resonant line is sometimes said to be
resonant at an applied frequency. This means that at
one frequency the line acts as a RESONANT CIRCUIT.
 It may act either as a high-resistive circuit (parallel

resonant) or as a low-resistive circuit (series resonant).
The line may be made to act in this manner by either
open- or short-circuiting it at the output end and
cutting it to some multiple of a quarter-wavelength.
RESONANT LINES
 At the points of voltage maxima and minima on a short-circuited or

open-circuited line, the line impedance is resistive.
 On a short-circuited line, each point at an odd number of quarter-

wavelengths from the receiving end has a high impedance .
 If the frequency of the applied voltage to the line is varied, this

impedance decreases as the effective length of the line changes. This
variation is exactly the same as the change in the impedance of a
parallel-resonant circuit when the applied frequency is varied.
On an open-ended resonant line,
and at all odd 1/4 λ points, the
voltage is minimum, the current is
maximum, and the impedance is
minimum.
At all even 1/4 λ points, the

voltage is maximum, the current is
minimum and the impedance is
maximum.
VARIETY OF TERMINATIONS FOR RF LINES
Each termination has an effect on the standing waves on the line.

• A transmission line can be terminated in its characteristic impedance as an
open- or short-circuit, or in capacitance or inductance.
• Whenever the termination on a transmission line is NOT EQUAL TO Z0, there

are reflections on the line.
• The amount of voltage reflected may be found by using the equation:
• When the termination on a transmission line EQUALS Z0, there is NO

reflected voltage.
The Transmission-line Geometry:
Voltage Reflection Coefficient (at the load) is defined as the

ratio of reflected voltage to incident voltage, which can in
general be complex:
VOLTAGE REFLECTION COEFFICIENT
Some special cases to remember are:
Using the load reflection coefficient gives:

REFLECTION COEFFICIENT
Generalized reflection coefficient along the line:
So the magnitude of Гdoes not change as we move

along the line; only the phase changes.
The measurement of standing waves on a transmission line
yields information about operating conditions.
If there are NO standing waves, the termination for that line

is correct and maximum power transfer takes place.
STANDING WAVE RATIO is the measurement of maximum

voltage (current) to minimum voltage (current) on a
transmission line and measures the perfection of the
termination of the line.
A ratio of 1:1 describes a line terminated in its characteristic

impedance.
STANDING WAVES ON A TRANSMISSION LINE
There is a large variety of terminations for RF lines. Each type of

termination has a characteristic effect on the standing waves on
the line. From the nature of the standing waves, you can
determine the type of termination that produces the waves.
TERMINATION IN Z0
Termination in Z0 (characteristic impedance) will cause a

constant reading on an AC meter when it is moved along the
length of the line.
Effects of various terminations on standing waves.
As illustrated in the figure (next slide), view A, the curve, provided there are
no losses in the line, will be a straight line. If there are losses in the line, the
amplitude of the voltage and current will diminish as they move down the line
(view B). The losses are due to dc resistance in the line itself.
Effects of various terminations on standing waves.
In an open-circuited RF line (figure view C), the voltage is maximum at the

end, but the current is minimum.
TERMINATION IN AN OPEN CIRCUIT
• In an open-circuited RF line (figure view C), the voltage is maximum
at the end, but the current is minimum.
• The distance between two adjacent zero current points is ½ , and
the distance between alternate zero current points is 1 .
• The voltage is zero at a distance of ¼  from the end of the line.
• This is true at any frequency. A voltage peak occurs at the end of
the line, at ½  from the end, and at each ½  thereafter.
Effects of various terminations on standing waves
Standing Waves
• The combination of forward and reverse travelling waves
produce a standing-wave, which is so-called because the
positions of maximum and minimum signal do not vary
with time.
• The actual shape of this standing wave is a function of
the load impedance.
• We define a STANDING WAVE RATIO as:
Note: Other text use the beta symbol for reflection coefficient.
VSWR
VSWR: The ratio of the high voltage points to the low voltage
points is called the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR).
SWR: The ratio of the high current points to low current

points is known as current standing ratio or simply as the
standing wave ratio (SWR).
Reflection and Transmission
• Reflection
Refer to
slide 55
• Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) can also be

expressed in terms of the reflection coefficient:
Effect of mismatch
The perfect condition of no reflection occurs only when the load is purely
resistive and equal to Zo. Such a condition is called a flat line and indicates a
VSWR of 1. If the load is a known value of pure resistance, the VSWR can be
determined by the following equation:
Power loss
If reflection occurs because of mismatch, the full generator power does

not reach the load.
The existence of reflections (and re-reflections) increases the power

loss in the form of I2R heating.
Example:
A transmitter operating with 4-W output is connected via a 10m of RG-8A/U

50-Ohm coaxial cable to an antenna that has an input resistance of 300-
Ohm. Determine (a) the VSWR, (b) the amount of transmitter's 4-W
output absorbed by the antenna.
Solution:
a)
b)
The reflected voltage is r times the incident voltage. Since power is

proportional to the square of the voltage, the reflected power,
Prefl = (0.71)2 x 4 W = 2.016 W
Power to the Antenna = 4 W - Prefl = 1.98 W
End of Lesson 1

Transmission Line Lecture 1revised

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TRANSMISSION

• Understand what a transmission line and its applications

TRANSMISSION LINES - is a two conductor wire

- These are devices for guiding electrical energy

Two types of metallic cable:

• Balanced refers to the

This type of line has high

 TWIN LEAD has parallel

• Coaxial cables are

has parallel conductors

RIGID COAXIAL LINE

contains two concentric conductors

• A transmission line is considered to be electrically short

• A transmission line is electrically long when its physical

A line that has a physical length of 3 meters

To show the difference in physical and electrical lengths of the

TRANSVERSE ELECTROMAGNETIC (TEM)

The electric and magnetic field wave intensities

This is in the assumption of no loss in the

 An equivalent circuit of a transmission line can be

 Since the wires are of uniform size , the RESISTANCE of

 The magnetic field links the wires and hence an

 This shunt admittance consists of a conductance and a

 The presence of CAPACITANCE is because the line

 This leakage path may be represented by a conductance

 LEAKAGE CURRENT flows between the two wires due to the

 This property is called CONDUCTANCE (G) and is the opposite

1. The distributed resistance R of the conductors - series

2. The distributed inductance L (due to the magnetic field

3. The capacitance C between the two conductors- shunt

4. The conductance G of the dielectric material

Lumped Element Model for a Transmission Line

A short segment Δx of transmission line can be modeled as a

Equivalent circuit showing stray capacitance between conductors.

Voltage charges capacitance, current charges inductance.

Begin wave propagation.

• A transmission line is a distributed-

Where: R = resistance (ohms)

 The distributed constants of resistance, inductance, and

 As soon as current flow and voltage exist in a

 This is the presence of an electromagnetic field, or lines

 The lines of force themselves are not visible; however,

There are two kinds of fields;

 The field associated with

 The field associated with

 it refers to the equivalent resistance of a transmission

 Z0 is the ratio of E to I at every point along the line.

 For maximum transfer of electrical power, the

er = dielectric constant (relative permittivity) of the medium

Note: 55.6 = 2𝜋𝑥e0x 2.3

• Where σ is the conductivity of the material.

The current in a conductor will always concentrate on the surface that

• The surface resistance of the conducting material is:

• Where σ is the conductivity of the material.

VELOCITY FACTOR OF THE CABLE

Vp- phase velocity

In general the relative permeability of most, if not all insulating

Unit Resistance for Coaxial Cable

For a parallel-wire line with air insulation, the characteristic

Zo = (276 / √er ) log (2 a/d) ()

Evaluate the velocity of propagation and the characteristic impedance of an

Zc  Lˆ Cˆ  0.14 106 80 1012  42 

• ϒ = is the propagation constant