DC AND AC BRIDGES

INTRODUCTION

• DC & AC Bridges are used to measure resistance, inductance, capacitance and

other impedance parameters.
• Operate on a null indication principle where a standard (known) value is
adjusted for making comparison-measurement of unknown value.
• Highly accurate and reliable method: Indication is independent of the
calibration of the indicating device or any characteristics of it.
DC AND AC BRIDGE CIRCUITS
DC BRIDGE
A) WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
• Simplest Bridge to measure resistance.
• Suitable for moderate resistance values: 1Ω to 100kΩ.
• The Bridge has four resistive arms together with a source of emf and a null detector, usually a
Galvanometer.

• When Galvanometer deflects, the Bridge is said to be

unbalanced.
• Standard resistance, S is adjusted to achieve Balance
condition.
• Balance condition: No potential difference across
the galvanometer (there is no current through the
galvanometer).

Fig 1: Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE (BALANCED)
Under Balanced condition:
𝑉𝑃 = 𝑉𝑅 , i.e., 𝐼1 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 … (1)
𝑉𝑄 = 𝑉𝑆 , i.e., 𝐼1 𝑄 = 𝐼2 𝑆 …(2)
𝑃 𝑅
Dividing (1) and (2), =
𝑄 𝑆

=>Unknown resistance, 𝑃
𝑅=𝑆
𝑄

• It is suitable for measurement of medium resistance (1Ω to 100kΩ)

• Not suitable for measurement of low resistance (<1Ω) : effect of lead resistance is not
eliminated by Wheatstone bridge.
B) KELVIN’S DOUBLE BRIDGE

• Modification of Wheatstone Bridge for very low resistance measurement.

• Uses two additional resistances to avoid the effect of lead resistance.
• Effect of lead resistance is eliminated by maintaining the resistance ratios of
inner and outer ratio-arms equal.
• Used for the measurement of low resistance (<1 Ω).
KELVIN’S DOUBLE BRIDGE (BALANCED)

• Under balanced condition:

• 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼3 𝐴 =>𝐼1 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 + 𝐼3 𝐴
𝑃 𝐴
=>𝑅 = (𝐼 − 𝐼3 ) …(3)
𝐼2 1 𝑃

• 𝑉𝑄 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝐼3 𝐵 =>𝐼1 𝑄 = 𝐼2 𝑆 + 𝐼3 𝐵
𝑄 𝐵
=>S= (𝐼 − 𝐼3 )…(4)
𝐼2 1 𝑄

Fig 2: Kelvin’s Double Bridge Circuit

KELVIN’S DOUBLE BRIDGE (BALANCED)

Dividing (3) and (4), we get

𝑅 𝑃 𝐼1 − 𝐼3 𝐴ൗ𝑃
=
𝑆 𝑄 𝐼1 − 𝐼3 𝐵ൗ
𝑄
If 𝐴Τ𝑃 = 𝐵Τ𝑄 ⇒ 𝐴Τ𝐵 = 𝑃Τ𝑄 then
𝑃
Unknown Resistance, 𝑅=𝑆
𝑄
AC BRIDGE
AC BRIDGE

• Natural outgrowth of the DC Bridge (Wheatstone Bridge).

• Basic form: Four bridge arms (impedance), a source of excitation and a null or
balance detector.
• Source of excitation
• For Low frequency measurement: Power line supply
• For High frequency measurement: Electronic Oscillator

• Null Detector
• 1-200Hz : Vibration Galvanometer
• 200-2000Hz : Telephone Detector
• >2000Hz : Tuned Amplifier Detector
AC BRIDGE: BALANCE CONDITION
• Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedance of bridge arms.
• At Balance point,
𝑬𝑩𝑨 = 𝑬𝑩𝑪 ⇒ 𝑰𝟏 𝒁𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 𝒁𝟐
𝑽 𝑽
𝑰𝟏 = and 𝑰𝟐 =
𝒁𝟏 +𝒁𝟑 𝒁𝟐 +𝒁𝟒

• Complex Form: Z1Z4 = Z2Z3

• Magnitude Balance:
|Z1|| Z4| = |Z2||Z3|

• Phase Balance: ∠θ1+ ∠θ4= ∠θ2+ ∠θ3

Fig 3: General form of AC bridge
MEASUREMENT OF INDUCTANCE
MAXWELL’S INDUCTANCE BRIDGE (1<Q<10)

• Value of unknown inductance is measured by

comparison with a variable standard self-
inductance.
• Lx is the unknown resistance of resistance Rx .
• L2 is the variable inductance of fixed internal
resistance r2 connected in series with variable
resistance R2.
• R3 and R4 are non-inductive resistances.

Fig 4.1: Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

MAXWELL’S INDUCTANCE BRIDGE (BALANCED)

• Four arms: 𝒁𝟏 = 𝑅𝑥 + 𝑗ω𝐿𝑥 , 𝒁𝟐 = 𝑅2 + 𝑟2 + 𝑗ω𝐿2 , 𝒁𝟑 =

𝑅3 , 𝒁𝟒 = 𝑅4 .
• At Balance: 𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟒 =𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝟑
⇒ (𝑅𝑥 +𝑗ω𝐿𝑥 )𝑅4 = (𝑅2 +𝑟2 + 𝑗ω𝐿2 )𝑅3
• Equating real and imaginary parts:
𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝒙 = (𝑹 + 𝒓𝟐 ) 𝑳𝒙 = 𝑳
𝑹𝟒 𝟐 𝑹𝟒 𝟐

• Unknown inductance value by comparison with variable

inductance L2of fixed resistance r2.
Fig 4.2: Phasor diagram of Balanced
Maxwell’s Bridge
MAXWELL’S INDUCTANCE CAPACITANCE BRIDGE
(1<Q<10)
• Value of unknown inductance is measured by comparison with a variable standard
capacitor. C4is the variable standard capacitance in parallel with non-inductive
resistance R4
• At Balance, 𝒁𝒙 =𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝟑 𝒀𝟒
𝟏
⇒ (𝑅𝑥 +𝑗ω𝐿𝑥 )=𝑅2 𝑅3 ( + 𝑗ω𝐶4 )
𝑹𝟒

• Equating Real and Imaginary parts,

𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝒙 = 𝑳𝒙 = 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑪𝟒
𝑹𝟒
• Maxwell’s Bridge: Suitable for medium Q coil.
Fig 5.1: Maxwell’s Inductance
• Impractical for High Q coil : R4has to very large. Capacitance Bridge
MAXWELL’S INDUCTANCE CAPACITANCE BRIDGE
PHASOR DIAGRAM
• At Balance:

Fig 5.2:Phasor diagram of Balanced Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge

HAY’S BRIDGE (Q>10)
• Modification of Maxwell’s Bridge: Resistance in series with the standard
capacitor.
• At balance: 𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝒙 =𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝟑
𝑗
where,𝒁𝟏 = 𝑅1 − ; 𝒁𝟐 =𝑅2 ; 𝒁𝟑 =𝑅3 .
ωC1
Equating real and imaginary parts and
Solving:
Fig 6.1: Hay’s Bridge
ω2 𝐶12 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶1
𝑅𝑥 = 𝐿𝑥 =
1 + ω2 𝐶12 𝑅12 1 + ω2 𝐶12 𝑅12
HAY’S BRIDGE (CONTINUED…)
𝑋𝐿 ω 𝐿𝑥
tan θ𝐿 = = =𝑄
𝑅 𝑅𝑥

𝑋𝐶 1
tan θ𝐶 = =
𝑅 ω𝐶1𝑅1

1
tan θ𝐿 = tan θ𝐶 or Q =
ω𝐶1 𝑅1
Fig 6.2: Phasor diagram of arm 4 and 1

𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶1
Thus, Lx can be written as 𝐿𝑥 = 2
1
1+ ൗ𝑄

For high Q coil (>10), the term (1/Q2) can be neglected.

𝐿𝑥 ≈ 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶1
HAY’S BRIDGE (BALANCED)

Fig 6.3:Phasor diagram of Balanced Hay’s Bridge

ANDERSON’S BRIDGE (Q<1)

• Modification of Maxwell’s inductance-capacitance bridge: Self inductance is

measured in terms of standard capacitor.
• L1 = Self inductance to be measured,
• R1 = resistance of self-inductor,
• r1 = resistance connected in series with self-inductor,
• r, R2, R3, R4= known non-inductive resistances,
• C = fixed standard capacitor.

• At balance:
I1=I3 and I2=IC+I4
1
Now, 𝐼1 𝑅3 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑋 ⇒ 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼1 𝑗ω𝐶𝑅3
𝑗ω𝐶
Fig 7.1: Anderson’s Bridge
ANDERSON’S BRIDGE (BALANCED)

• Other balanced equations:

𝐼1 𝑟1 + 𝑅1 + 𝑗ωL1 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝐼𝐶 r
1
𝐼𝐶 𝑟+ = (𝐼2 −𝐼𝐶 )𝑅4
jω𝐶
Putting the value of IC in the above equations
and comparing real and imaginary parts:

𝑅3
𝐿1 = 𝐶 (𝑟 𝑅4 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅4 )
𝑅4
ANDERSON’S BRIDGE (BALANCED)

Fig 7.2:Phasor diagram of Balanced Anderson’s Bridge

OWEN’S BRIDGE

• Measurement of inductance in terms of capacitance.

• Modified Owen’s Bridge can be used to measure Incremental Inductance.
• Bridge Parameters:
• L1 = Unknown self-inductance with internal resistance R1
• R2 = Variable non-inductive resistance
• R3 = Fixed standard non-inductive resistance
• C2 = Standard variable capacitor
• C4 = Fixed standard capacitor

Fig 8.1: Owen’s Bridge

OWEN’S BRIDGE (BALANCED)

• At Balance, 𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟒 = 𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝟑
𝒁𝟏 = 𝑅1 + 𝑗ω𝐿1
1
𝒁𝟐 = 𝑅2 +
𝑗ω𝐶2
𝒁𝟑 = 𝑅3
𝟏
𝒁𝟒 =
𝑗ω𝐶4

• Equating real and imaginary parts:

𝑅3 𝐶4
𝐿1 = 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶4 𝑅1 =
𝐶2
OWEN’S BRIDGE (BALANCED)

Fig 8.2:Phasor diagram of Balanced Owen’s Bridge

MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE
SCHERING BRIDGE

• Used for measurement of capacitance and dissipation factor (D).

• At Balance: 𝒁𝑿 = 𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝟑 𝒀𝟒
• Where 𝒁𝟐 = 𝑗ω𝟏𝐶 ; 𝒁𝟑 = 𝑹𝟑 ; and 𝒀𝟒 = 𝑅1 + 𝑗ω𝐶4
2 4

• Expanding and separating real and

Imaginary terms yield:

𝐶2 𝑅4 𝐶4 𝑅3
𝐶𝑥 = 𝑅𝑥 =
𝑅3 𝐶2
Fig 9.1: Schering Bridge
SCHERING BRIDGE (CONTINUED)

• Dissipation factor tells us about the quality of a

capacitor, how close the phase angle of the
capacitor is to the ideal value of 90°.
𝑅𝑥
• Dissipation factor of a series RC circuit: 𝐷 =
𝑋𝑥
=
ω𝑅𝑥 𝐶𝑥
• For Schering Bridge: 𝐷 = ω𝑅𝑥 𝐶𝑥 = ω𝑅4 𝐶4
SCHERING BRIDGE (CONTINUED)

Fig 9.2:Phasor diagram of Balanced Schering’s Bridge

STRAY CAPACITANCE

• In electric circuits, stray capacitance is an unavoidable and usually unwanted

capacitance that exists between the parts of an electronic component or circuit:
Significant effect in high frequency measurements.
• A potential problem in sensitive AC bridge circuits is that of stray capacitance
between either end of the null detector unit and ground(earth) potential.
• Because capacitances can “conduct” alternating current by charging and discharging,
they form stray current paths to the AC voltage source which may affect bridge
balance.
• Stray capacitance to ground may introduce errors into the bridge.
WAGNER’S EARTH DEVICE

• One way to control stray capacitances is by shielding

the arms: reduce the effect of stray capacitances but
cannot eliminate them completely.
• Wagner’s earth connection eliminates some effects of
stray capacitances in a bridge circuit.
• Simultaneous balance of both bridge makes the point
1 and 2 at the ground potential. (short C1 and C2 to
ground, C4 and C5 are eliminated from detector
circuit)
• The capacitance across the bridge arms e.g. C6 Fig 11: Wagner’s earth device
cannot be eliminated by Wagner’s earth device.
THANK YOU