Unit I

UNIT-I
MANUFACTURING
Principles of metal
casting:
prepared by A.SUBRAHMANYAM
 There are four stages to the Life Cycle
Introduction
Growth
Maturity
Decline
 Introduction Stage
Sales are generally low and
somewhat slow to take off
Production costs are high
because of significant scale
economies
Marketing costs for costumer
awareness, interest and trial are
high
Competitors tend to be few
in number
Profits are low, because of low
sales
 Growth Stage
◦ Costs are declining because of
longer production runs due to
increased sales  Decline Stage
◦ Profits are increasing significantly ◦ Sales continue to
◦ Customers are the early adopters
deteriorate through
◦ Competition continues to grow
throughout this stage decline Stage.
◦ Profits continue to
 Maturity Stage erode during this stage
◦ Sales continues to grow in the
early stages of maturity
◦ Customers are primary
◦ Costs continue to rise laggards
◦ The only remaining customers to ◦ Generally there are
enter the market are the late
majority and the laggards (Those
significant number of
most hesitant to adopt new competitors still in the
products) industry at the
◦ Competition is the most intense
beginning of the
decline stage
Job Production
 A single product is produced from start to
finish as a result of an individual customer
order.
 Can suit both small scale production e.g. a
tailor made suit, and large scale production
e.g. a cruise liner.
 Tends to be a labour-intensive production
process.
 Each piece is made to the customer’s exact
requirements
 Job satisfaction is high for the worker
 Quality of the goods is very high
 The design is flexible and can be changed
Disadvantages
 The products are very expensive
 The work is very time consuming
 The advantages of economies of scale are
lost
 Is used to produce a number of similar
products - a batch.
 When an order has been completed another
batch is produced.
 Most manufacturing occurs through batch
production.
For example clothes manufacturers use
batch production to produce a given item, such
as a blazer, in batches of different sizes or
colours.
 All of the items in the batch are the same, so
production is speeded up. This reduces the
cost of labour and results in the final product
being less expensive for the customer.
Advantages
 Labour costs reduced so final price is lower.
 Workers may specialise to some degree.
 Begins to take the advantages of economies
of scale.
Disadvantages
 The machines have to reset between batches,
losing time.
 Large storage of raw materials must be kept.
 More floor space is required for working and
storage
 Also known as mass production or assembly line
production or flow production.
 Product is passed along a production line - raw

materials to ready for sale.
 Flow production is a capital-intensive process.
 Employees are only required to perform repetitive

tasks so they are usually unskilled or semi-skilled
employees.
 The finished product is usually not expensive for

the customer.
Advantages
 The final product is inexpensive
 Large quantities can be manufactured
 The quality of the product is standardised
 Machinery can be used so labour costs are reduced
 Unskilled wages further reduce costs
 Assembly lines can run continuously
 Production is fast
 Takes full advantage of economies of scale
Disadvantages
 The work is repetitive
 There is an increased risk of accidents
 Employee motivation is low
 The products are all identical
 Large capital investment is required
 Larger buildings are usually needed
 Large stocks of raw materials must be kept
 Machinery breakdown can halt production
 There is a loss of traditional skills
 Raw materials can be turned into industrial
goods using the primary manufacturing
process.
They can be obtained by
 Mining- digging
 Drilling- pumping
 Harvesting- cutting
They can be converted by
Thermal ,Chemical and Mechanical processes
 Thermal Processing- steelmaking, smelting.
 Chemical Processing- polymer formation,

papermaking.
 Mechanical Processing- plumbing, crushing

rock.
 Changing industrial materials into finished
products. Six different activities:
 Casting and Moulding
 Forming
 Separation
 Conditioning
 Assembling
 Finishing
 Pouring or forcing liquid material into a
prepared mold. It solidifies then is removed
from the mold.
 Using force to cause a material to take
permanent shape, using a die, mold, or roll.
 Converting a material to size and shape by
removing excess material through cutting or
shearing.
 Using heat, mechanical force or chemical
action to change the internal properties of a
material.
◦ Drying
◦ Heat treating
◦ Firing
 Temporarily or permanently holding two or
more parts together.
 Protecting and/or adding beauty to the
surface of a material.
 Casting is the process of pouring molten
metal into the previously made cavity to the
desired shape and allow it to solidify.
 The following are the basic operations of
casting process
◦ Pattern making
◦ Melting the metal
◦ Pouring it into a previously made mould which
confirms to the shape of desired component.
 Discovered probably in 3500 BC in Mesopotamia. Copper
axes were turned out in open moulds, essentially moulds
were in single piece.
 Bronze age 2000 BC core for making hollow pockets in object
was invented. lost wax process(Cire perdue) extensively used
for making ornaments
 In 1500 BC Chinese invented multi piece moulds for making
intricate jobs. They spent much time in perfecting mould to
last detail.
 Indus valley civilization were much familiar with all known
casting methods such as open mould, piece mould and cire
perdue.
 Iron founding was invented in Syria and Persia around 300 BC
 India could be credited with the invention of crucible steel
 Iron casting tech was in India from the times of Alexander
 Famous iron pillar at Qutb minar in Delhi was an example of
the metallurgical skills of ancient Indians.
 The rate of rusting of this pillar, which stands in air is
practically zero
 Aplications:
Casting widely used in making of cylinder blocks, piston
rings, liners, machine tool beds, mill rolls , housings , water
supply pipes , bells etc.
Advantages:
 All most all metals and alloys are cast able.
 Any size , shape can be easily obtained.
 Casting tools are relatively cheap.
Limitations:
 The surface finish and dimensional accuracy is relatively less.
 Production size is less
 Sand casting is labor intensive and time consuming.
Flask
The box containing the mold
Cope
The top half of any part of a 2-part mold
Drag
The bottom half of any part of a 2-part mold
Core
A shape inserted into the mold to form internal cavities
Core Print
A region used to support the core
Mold Cavity
The hollow mold area in which metal solidifies into the part
Riser
An extra cavity to store additional metal to prevent shrinkage
Gating System
Channels used to deliver metal into the mold cavity
Pouring Cup
The part of the gating system that receives poured metal
Sprue
Vertical channel
Runners
Horizontal channels
Parting Line / Parting Surface
Interface that separates the cope and drag of a 2-part mold
Draft
Taper on a pattern or casting that allows removal from the
mold
Core Box
Mold or die used to produce cores
Casting
The process and product of solidifying metal in a mold
 cope: top half
 drag: bottom half
 core: for internal

cavities
 pattern: positive
 funnel  sprue 
  runners  gate

  cavity 
  {risers, vents}
chaplet
Mold
cavity
 Functions
 Desired Characteristics o It makes the mould
◦ Secure the desired shape
and size of the casting o It should enable the
◦ Simple in design, for ease creation of core prints
of manufacture o Provide provision for
◦ Cheap and readily available runner,sprue,gate and riser
◦ Light in mass and o Should provide good
convenient to handle surface finish which reduce
◦ Have high strength, casting defects.
hardness and durability o Properly made pattern
◦ Resistant to reduces overall cost of
wear,abrasion,corrosion casting
and chemical reactions
Different types of patterns
 Simple pattern/Single piece pattern
 Split or Parted Pattern
 Loose Piece Pattern
 Gated Patterns.
 Match Plate pattern
 Cope and Drag Pattern
 Sweep Patterns.
 Skeleton pattern
 Single piece pattern:
This is the simplest type of pattern, exactly like the desired
casting. For making a mould, the pattern is accommodated
either in cope or in drag.
Used for producing a few large castings, for example, stuffing
box of steam engine.
 Split pattern:
These patterns are split along the parting plane (which may be
flat or irregular surface) to facilitate the extraction of the
pattern out of the mould before the pouring operation. For a
more complex casting, the pattern may be split in more than
two parts.
a)Single piece b)Split pattern c)Match-plate d) Cope and Drag Pattern
 Loose piece pattern:
When a one piece solid pattern has projections or back drafts
which lie above or below the parting plane, it is impossible to
with draw it from the mould. With such patterns, the
projections are made with the help of loose pieces. One
drawback of loose pieces is that their shifting is possible
during ramming.
Gated pattern:
 A gated pattern is simply one or more loose patterns having
attached gates and runners.
Because of their higher cost, these patterns are used for
producing small castings in mass production systems and on
molding machines.
 Match plate pattern:
A match plate pattern is a split pattern having the cope and drag
portions mounted on opposite sides of a plate (usually metallic),
called the "match plate" that conforms to the contour of the parting
surface.
The gates and runners are also mounted on the match plate, so that
very little hand work is required. This results in higher productivity.
This type of pattern is used for a large number of castings. Piston
rings of I.C. engines
 Sweep pattern:
A sweep is a section or board (wooden) of proper contour that is
rotated about one edge to shape mould cavities having shapes of
rotational symmetry. This type of pattern is used when a casting of
large size is to be produced in a short time. Large kettles of C.I.
engines are made by sweep patterns.
 Cope and drag pattern:
A cope and drag pattern is a split pattern having the cope and
drag portions each mounted on separate match plates. These
patterns are used when in the production of large castings;
the complete moulds are too heavy and unwieldy to
be handled by a single worker.
 Skeleton pattern:
For large castings having simple geometrical shapes, skeleton
patterns are used. Just like sweep patterns, these are simple
wooden frames that outline the shape of the part to be cast
and are also used as guides by the molder in the hand shaping
of the mould. This type of pattern is also used in pit or floor
molding process.
◦ Wood
◦ Common metals such as Brass, cast Iron,
Aluminium and white metal etc.
◦ Plastic
◦ Wax
◦ Resins
◦ Plaster of paris
There is a dimensional difference between pattern
and casting obtained due to several unavoidable
reasons.
So, there is a need to give these allowances to
compensate these changes. The widely used
dimensional allowances are
◦ Shrinkage allowance
◦ Machining allowance
◦ Draft allowance
◦ Shake allowance
◦ Distortion allowance
 Shrinkage allowance:
Shrinkage is defined as reduce the dimension of casting during
solidification or during cooling. This is general property of all
materials. Some metal shrinks more, some less but every material
shrinks. There are three types of shrinkage.
1. Liquid Shrinkage 2. Solidification Shrinkage 3. Solid Shrinkage
The liquid shrinkage and solidification shrinkage are compensated
by suitable riser but solid shrinkage does not compensated by it
so the pattern is made slightly larger to compensate shrinkage.
This is known as shrinkage allowance.
 Draft Allowance:
When the pattern is removed from mould, the parallel surface to
the direction at which pattern is withdrawn, damaged slightly and
convert into slightly tapered surfaces. To compensate these
changes, these parallel surfaces on patterns are made slightly
tapered (1-2 degree). This allow easy removal of pattern from
mold and does not affect the actual dimension of casting. These
are known as draft allowance.
 Machining Allowance:
As we known the casting gives poor surface finish and
rough surfaces. Also, the Pattern is made manually which
does not fixed accurate angles and dimensions of mating
parts. But we need a proper finished and dimensionally
accurate casting. To avoid these problems, casting made
slightly larger and after solidification machining is done
on it for better surface finish and accurate dimensions.
This change in dimension of casting is known as
machining allowance.
 Rapping Allowance:
When the pattern is removed from casting, it will slightly
increase the dimension of casting. So to compensate this
changes, the pattern is made slightly smaller from
casting. This change in dimension is known as rapping
allowance.
Distortion Allowance:
When casting of very thin surfaces like V Shape, U shape etc. it

will distort or damage during pattern removal or during casting. To
avoid this problem, a chamber is provided on pattern to compensate
distortion during pattern removal. This change in casting dimension is
known as distortion allowance
CORE MAKING
 Core is a body made of refractory material

(sand or metal, metal cores being less
frequently used), which is set into the
prepared mould, for forming through holes,
recesses, projections, undercuts and internal
cavities.
 Core Prints. Core prints are the projections

on a pattern and are used to make recesses
(core seats) in the mould to locate the core
 Materials used in mould preparation
Silica sand, Binder, Additives and water
 Green sand mould :
A green sand mould is composed of mixture
of sand, clay and water.
 Dry sand mould :
Dry sand moulds are basically green sand
moulds with 1 to 2% cereal flour and 1 to 2%
pitch.
 Molding Sand Composition
The main ingredients of any molding sand are:
Base sand,
Binder, and
Moisture
 Base Sand
Silica sand is most commonly used base sand. Other base sands that are also
used for making mold are zircon sand, Chromite sand, and olivine sand.
Silica sand is cheapest among all types of base sand and it is easily available.
 Binder
Binders are of many types such as:
 Clay binders,
 Organic binders and
 Inorganic binders
Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed with the
molding sands to provide the strength. The most popular clay types
are:
Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O32SiO22H2O) and Bentonite(Al2O34
SiO2nH2O) of the two the Bentonite can absorb more water which
increases its bonding power.
Western bentonite having Sodium as absorbent ion and Southern

bentonite having Calcium as absorbent ion.
Southern bentonite has high green strength but low dry strength and
can be improved by treating with soda ash.
 Moisture
Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the required
amount of moisture. When water is added to clay, it penetrates the
mixture and forms a microfilm, which coats the surface of each flake
of the clay. The amount of water used should be properly controlled.
This is because a part of the water, which coats the surface of the
clay flakes, helps in bonding, while the remainder helps in improving
the plasticity. A typical composition of molding sand is given below.
The following tests have been recommended
by B.I.S.
 1. Moisture content test
 2. Clay content test
 3. Permeability test
 4. Fineness test or Sand grain size test (Sieve
analysis)
 5. Strength test
 6. Mould hardness test.
 Moisture content is an important element of moulding sand
as it effects many properties.
 To test the moisture of a moulding sand,a carefully weighed

sample of 50gm is dried at a temp of 1050c to 1100c for 2 hrs
by which time all the moisture content in the sand would have
been evaporated.
 The sample then weighed
 The weight difference in gms when multiplied by two would

give the % of moisture contained in the moulding sand.
 A 50gm sample is dried at 1050c to 1100c and dried sample
is taken in a 1liter glass flask and added with 475 ml of
distilled water and 25ml of a1% solution of caustic soda. This
sample is thoroughly stirred.
 After stirring for a period of 5min,the sample is diluted with
fresh water up to a 150mm mark and the sample is left
undisturbed for 10 min to settle
 The sand settles at the bottom and the clay particles washed
from the sand would be floating in the water.
 The 125mm of this water is siphoned off the flask and is
allowed to settle for 5 min
 The processes is repeated till the water above the sand
becomes clear.
 The sand is removed from the flask and dried by heating.
 The difference in this dried sand and 50gm when multiplied
by two gives the clay percentage in moulding sand.
 The rate of flow of air passing through a standard specimen
under a standard pressure is termed as permeability number.
 The standard permeability test is to measure time taken by a 200
cu cm of air at a pressure typically of 980 pa, to pass through a
standard sand specimen.
 The standard specimen size is 50.8 mm in dia and 50.8 mm in
length.
 The permeability number P is given by
 P=VH÷PAT
 WHERE V=volume of air=2000Cm3
 H=height of sand specimen=5.08cm
 P=air pressure,g/Cm2
 A=cross sectional area of sand specimen=20.268 Cm2
 T=time in minutes for the complete air to pass through
 P=501.28/PT after substituting all values
 The dried clay free sand grains are placed on the top sieve of
a sieve shaker, which contains a series of sieves one upon the
other with gradually decreasing mesh sizes.
 The sieves are shaken continuously for a period of 15min.
 After this shaking operation , the sieves are taken apart and
the leftover each of the sieve is carefully weighed.
 The sand retained on each sieve expressed as a percentage of
a total mass and it can be plotted against each sieve number
to obtain grain size distribution.
 Grain fineness number is given by
 GFN= ∑ Mifi/fi
 Mi = multiplying factor of Ith sieve
 Fi = amount of sand retained on the Ith sieve
 Measurement of strength of moulding sands can be carried
out on the universal sand-strength testing machine.
 The strength can be measured in compression , shear and
tension.
 The sands that could be tested are green sand,dry sand and
core sand.
 The compression and shear test involve the standard
cylindrical specimen that was used in the permeability test.
 The mould hardness is measured by a method similar to
Brinell hardness number.
 A spring loaded steel ball with a mass of 0.9 kg is indented
into the standard specimen prepared
 The depth of indentation can be directly measured on the
scale , if it shows 100 the mould is hardness is 100,if it is 0 it
is soft mould
 All ingredients of moulding sand should be properly mixed.
During it’s preparation any sand lumps should broken up ,
clay should envelop the sand particles and moisture should
make them to mix uniformly.
 In foundries mueller machines are used to mix the sand
mixture
 Batch Mueller
 Continuous Mueller
 They contain Muller wheels and ploughs,both are connected
to same rotating source.
 Muller wheels roll inside the muller bowl and ploughs will
agitate the sand continuously.
 Hand moulding used to produce castings in small batches,
machine moulding is used to produce castings in large batch.
 The machines are
 Jolting machine
 Squeezing machine
 Sand slinging machine
 Jolting machine the moulding flask is filled from a over
head hopper, it is raised to a certain height before it is
allowed to fall on to a solid bed plate.
 The impact forces the sand to fill the mould flask uniformly
from top to bottom due the continuous ramming.
 High impact force and well packing on bottom portion.
 Severe effect on moulding equipment and uneven packing.
Squeezing machine
 It consists of a plate which is fitted into the moulding flask
inner diameter.
 Either the plate is forced down or the flask is raised up after
filling the flask with moulding sand.
 The sand next to the plate rams hardest while the sand below
is progressively less harder.
 Hardness obtained depends on the pressure applied on
squeeze plate
 Combination of jolting and squeezing is used to
produce uniform ramming action on the sand in
moulding flask
Sand slinging machine
 Sand is sprayed through nozzle rapidly with high force
uniformly on the entire area of the flask.
 Sand should be sprayed in layers to achieve uniform hardness
 comparatively high capital cost then jolting and squeezing
 Are used to support a core from the bottom or to anchor it
from the top to prevent floating. However, it is quite
important to secure it against lateral shifting due to unequal
pressure of the metal while pouring.
 Various sizes and configurations are available.
 According to him two ratios should be find out to judge
whether a riser will produce a sound casting or a defective
casting.
 The first ratio is riser volume divided by casting volume.
 Another ratio is casting surface area by casting volume whole
divided by riser surface area by riser volume. This is known
as freezing ratio.
 If these two ratios are meeting some where, means it will
produce a sound casting.
 If they meet on right side of the curve we will get sound
casting. on the other hand, if they meet on left side there will
be shrinkage.
 Here we will use Modulus of solidification of
casting or a riser.
 It is the ratio of volume to surface area.
 It is based on chvorinov’s rule
 Now, let us see the feeding distance. To what extend a riser can feed a
casting? A casting may be so long and we may use one riser; does it
mean that the one riser will feed the entire long casting? No, it will feed
to certain extent, and if so, by how much distance it will be feeding, that is
the feeding distance.
 Let us see two cases.
 Case: I Here we can see one casting where there is no riser, but we can see
after solidification here there is a shrinkage,
 Case: II But here one portion, it is solidified successfully without any
shrinkage. So, the portion of the casting, which was solidified without
any shrinkage due to the walls of the mould that is known as the end
effect. End effect means, walls of the mould, they are able to solidify the
casting without any shrinkage, so that is equal to 2.5 t where t is the
thickness of the casting. So, here we can see one portion is solidified without
any shrinkage that is 2.5 t and this side another portion 2.5 t.
 Let us see case I ,we have kept a riser this time, there is
no shrinkage, means this portion.
 Previously there was a shrinkage that is compensated by
this riser; because we have kept a riser, this portion, we did
not get any shrinkage, means this portion is taken care by
the riser. So, this is the riser effect.
 Riser effect means it is the shrinkage compensation taken
care by the riser and that comes to be 2 t where t is the
thickness of the casting.
 So, that total feeding distance when we keep a riser will be
4.5 t. So, here we can see the influence of end effect, and
here we can see the influence of end effect and riser effect.
 When we place the riser, because of the riser, certain
area will be there without any shrinkage; that is the
riser effect and that will be 2 t; and the total feeding
distance will be sum of end effect and riser effect, that will
be 4.5 t.
 Sometimes we may have an area of the metal casting that will
need to solidify at a faster rate in order to ensure that
directional solidification occurs properly. Manufacture
planning, and design of flow and section locations within the
mold may not be sufficient.
 To accelerate the solidification of a section like this in our
casting, we may employ the use of chills. Chills act as heat
sinks, increasing the cooling rate in the vicinity where they
are placed
 Chills are of two basic types.
 Internal chills are located inside the mold cavity and are
usually made of the same material as the casting. When the
metal solidifies the internal chills are fused into the metal
casting itself.
 External chills are located just outside of the casting. External
chills are made of a material that can remove heat from the
metal casting faster than the surrounding mold material.
Possible materials for external chills include iron, copper, and
graphite

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UNIT-I

 Product is passed along a production line - raw

 Flow production is a capital-intensive process.

 Employees are only required to perform repetitive

 The finished product is usually not expensive for

 Chemical Processing- polymer formation,

 Mechanical Processing- plumbing, crushing

 Any size , shape can be easily obtained.

 Casting tools are relatively cheap.

 Production size is less

 Sand casting is labor intensive and time consuming.

 drag: bottom half

 core: for internal

 Core is a body made of refractory material

 Core Prints. Core prints are the projections

Western bentonite having Sodium as absorbent ion and Southern

 To test the moisture of a moulding sand,a carefully weighed

 The sample then weighed

 The weight difference in gms when multiplied by two would

 comparatively high capital cost then jolting and squeezing

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