Qualitative Research: SAMPLING

What is Sampling?
• It relates to research, refers to the selection of
individuals, units, and/or settings to be studied.
•Qualitative studies often use
purposive or criterion-
based sampling, that is, a
sample that has the
characteristics relevant to the
research questions.
Differences of Sampling Strategies
between Quali & Quanti Researches

Qualitative Quantitative

Purposive/Criterion-based Sampling Strives for Random Sampling

Specific group, type of individual Infer from sample to population

Can be about an event or process Can be about relationship or effect

Goal: In-depth understanding Goal: Empirical Generalization

Seeks to obtain sample sizes

WHAT IS THE PROCESS OF QUALTATIVE DATA
COLLECTION?
1- Identify your participants and sites.

2- Gain access.
3- Determine the type of data to
collect.
4- Develop data collection forms.
5- Administer the process in an ethical
manner.
WHAT PARTICIPANTS AND SITES WILL YOU
STUDY?
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RANDOM
SAMPLING AND PURPOSEFUL
SAMPLING
 Random “Quantitative”
sampling
Select representative
individuals
▼ ▼
To generalize from sample to
the population
To make “claims” about the population
To build/test “theories” that explain the
population.
Purposeful “Qualitative”
sampling
Select people or sites who can
best help us understand our
phenomenon
To develop a detailed
understanding
That might provide useful information.
That might help people learn about the
phenomenon.
That might give voice to silenced people.
NON Probabilistic Sampling
• Convenience Sampling
▫ the participants are consecutively
selected in order of appearance
according to their convenient
accessibility (also known as consecutive
sampling)
Quota sampling
• According to this sampling technique, the
population is first classified by characteristics
such as gender, age, etc.
• Subsequently, sampling units are selected to
complete each quota.
Purposive sampling:
• this is used when a diverse sample is necessary
or the opinion of experts in a particular field is
the topic of interest.

• Researchers intentionally select individuals

and sites to learn and understand the central
phenomenon.
TYPES OF PURPOSEFUL
SAMPLING

• Maximal Variation Sampling

Extreme Case Sampling
Typical Sampling
Theory or Concept Sampling
Homogeneous Sampling
> Critical Sampling

Opportunistic Sampling
Snowball Sampling
• Confirming and Disconfirming Sampling
Maximal Variation Sampling:

A purposeful sampling strategy in which the

researcher samples cases or individuals that
differ on some characteristic or trait.
e.g. different age groups.
EXTREME CASE SAMPLING

Is a form of purposeful sampling in which you

study an outlier case or one that displays
extreme characteristics.
-Choose extreme cases after knowing the typical or
average case-e.g., outstanding successes, crisis
events
 Typical Sampling

A form of a purposeful sampling in which the

researcher studies a person or site that is
“typical” to those unfamiliar with the situation.
Theory or Concept Sampling

A purposeful sampling strategy in which the

researcher samples individuals or sites
because they can help the researcher generate
or discover a theory or specific concepts within
the theory.
Homogeneous Sampling

The researcher purposefully samples individuals

or sites based on membership in a subgroup
that has defining characteristics.
Opportunistic Sampling

Purposeful sampling undertaken after the

research begins, to take advantage of unfolding
events that will help answer research questions.
Snowball Sampling

A form of purposeful sampling that typically

proceeds after a study begins and occurs when
the researcher asks participants to recommend
other individuals to study.
Probabilistic Sampling
• In the context of probabilistic sampling, all units
of the target population have a nonzero
probability to take part in the study.
• The odds of being selected by the research team
may be expressed by the formula:

•P=1/N
: where P equals the probability of taking part in the study and N corresponds
to the size of the target population.
Simple random sampling
• In this case, we have a full list of sample units or
participants (sample basis), and we randomly
select individuals using a table of random
numbers.
Systematic random sampling
• Participants are selected from fixed intervals
previously defined from a ranked list of
participants.
Stratified sampling
• In this type of sampling, the target population is
first divided into separate strata (layers).

• Then, samples are selected within each stratum,

either through simple or systematic sampling.
• The total number of individuals to be selected in
each stratum can be fixed or proportional to the
size of each stratum.
Cluster sampling
• in this type of probabilistic sampling of groups
such as health facilities, schools, etc., are
sampled.
INTERVIEWS AND
QUESTIONNAIRES
INTERVIEWS

Occur when researchers ask one or more

participants general, open-ended
questions and record their answers.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF THE INTERVIEW:

Advantages:
1- provide useful information when you cannot directly observe
participants.
2- they permit participants to describe detailed information

Disadvantages :
1- it provides only information “filtered” through the views of the
interviewers.
2- interview data may be deceptive and provide the perspective
the interviewee wants the researcher to hear.
3- the presence of the researcher may affect how the
interviewee responds.
4- interviewee responses also may not be articulate,
perceptive, or clear.
Types of interviews and open-ended questions on
questionnaires:

1- one-on-one interviews: is a data-collection process in which the

researcher asks questions to and records answers from only one
participant in the study at a time.

2- focus group interviews: the process of collecting data through

interviews with a group of people, typically four to six.

3- telephone interviews: is the process of gathering data using the

telephone and asking a small number of general questions.

4- electronic e-mail interviews: consist of collecting open-ended data

through interviews with individuals using computer and the internet to do
so.
 CONDUCTING INTERVIEWS:

1- Identify the interviewees.

2- Determine the type of interview you will use.
3- During the interview, audiotape the questions and
responses.
4- Take brief notes during the interview.
5- Locate a quiet, suitable place for conducting the
interview.

6- Obtain the consent from the interviewee to participate

in the study.
7- Have a plan, but be flexible.

8- Be courteous and professional when the interview is

over.
 DOCUMENTS

Consist of public and private records that qualitative

researchers obtain about a site or participants in a study and
they can include newspapers, minutes of meeting, personal
journals, and letters.
 HOW DO YOU RECORD DATA?

For observations and interviews, qualitative researchers

use specially designed protocols.

Data recording protocols:

Are forms designed and used by qualitative
research to record information during
observations and interviews.
Interview protocol
Is a form designed by the researcher that contains
instructions for the process of the interview, the
questions to be asked, and space to take notes of
responses from the interviewee.
 Observational roles

A participant observer: is an observational role

adopted by researchers when they take part in
activities in the setting they observe.
A nonparticipant observer: is an observer who
visit a site and records notes without becoming
involved in the activities of the participants.

A changing observational role: is one where

researchers adapt their role to the situation.