Solutions

Stoichiometry
Equilibrium

Prepared by: Romaenia S. Salazar, RMT, MAT

• Solutions are homogeneous
mixtures of two or more substances
in a single phase.
• Solvent is the dissolving medium in a
solution.

• Solute is the substance that is

dissolved in a solution.

• Aqueous solution are solution with

water as the solvent.
Solution Composition:
Saturated: when a solution contains as much solute as will dissolve at
the temperature.
Unsaturated: when a solution has not reached the limit of solute that
will dissolve in it.

Solublilty
- is described a substance as capable of being
dissolved.
• saturated solution: contains the maximum amount of
dissolved solute.

• unsaturated solution: contains less than the maximum

amount of dissolved solute.

• A supersaturated solution: contains more dissolved

solute than a saturated solution.

https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=1y3bKIOkcmk
 Solubility curve

Solubility is a measurement of how much solute will dissolve in a

specific amount of solvent at a specific temperature to make a
saturated solution.
Solute-Solvent combinations in solutions:
various types of solution
State of State State Example
solution Solute Solvent
Gas Gas Gas Oxygen in nitrogen
Liquid Gas Liquid Carbon dioxide in water
Liquid Liquid Liquid Alcohol in water
Liquid Solid Mercury in silver and tin
(dental amalgam)
Liquid Solid Liquid Sugar in water
Solid Solid Solid Copper in nickel (alloy)
Liquid Solid Liquid Sea water
Types of Solutions
• Solutions can be in any of the
three common physical states.
solid- a mixture of metals called
an alloy
liquid- salt water, sugar water,
Kool-Aid…
gas- the atmosphere
 Solutions and Colloids

A solution is a homogeneous mixture and exists as a single phase.

The particles in a solution are individual atoms, ions, or small molecules
A suspension has large particles that settle out of a solvent. ex. muddy water

A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture and exists as two or more phases, which

may be visibly distinct.
The particles in a colloid are typically macromolecules or aggregations of small molecules.
A colloid has intermediate size particles. Also called an emulsion or a foam.

Substances that exhibit similar types of intermolecular force

dissolve in each other.
This is often expressed by saying “like dissolves in like.”
Table 13.2 Solubility* of a Series of Alcohols in Water and in
Hexane.
Solubility Solubility
Alcohol Model in Water in Hexane
CH3OH ∞ 1.2
(methanol)
CH3CH2OH ∞ ∞
(ethanol)
CH3(CH2)2OH ∞ ∞
(propanol)
(CH3(CH2)3OH 1.1 ∞
(1-butanol)
(CH3(CH2)4OH 0.30 ∞
(1-pentanol)
(CH3(CH2)5OH 0.058 ∞
(1-hexanol)
*Expressed in mol alcohol/1000 g solvent at 20ºC.
Figure 13.3 Like dissolves like: solubility of methanol in water.
Solutes:
electrolytes vs. nonelectrolytes
• An electrolyte is a substance that
dissolves in water to give a solution that
conducts electricity.

• A nonelectrolyte is a substance that

dissolves in water to give a solution that
does NOT conduct electricity.
• Solution equilibrium: the physical state in which the
opposing processes of dissolution and crystallization
occur at equal rates.
• Dissolution: dissolve
• Crystallization: form solid
 Factors that affect Solubility

Temperature affects solubility.

Most solids are more soluble at higher temperatures.
Gases become less soluble as temperature increases.

Pressure affects the solubility of gases – they become

more soluble at higher pressure.
Figure 13.19 Relation between solubility and temperature for
several ionic compounds.
 Figure 13.21 The effect of pressure on gas solubility.

As the pressure is increased, more gas particles collide with

the liquid surface. More gas particles dissolve until equilibrium
is re-established.
Factors that affect the rate of solution: (how quickly a
substance dissolves)
• Any process that increases the number of contacts between
the solvent and the solute will increase the solution rate.
• Increase solution rate by:
• increasing the surface area of the solute
• agitating (shaking or stirring) the solution
• heating the solvent
Temp. and Pressure affects on solubility:

•Increasing the pressure increases the solubility of gases in

a liquid.
• has no effect on the solubility of a solid in a liquid
•solid in liquid: increasing temperature often increases the
solubility
• gas in liquid: increasing temp decreases the solubility
 Will the solubility increase, decrease,
remain the same?
1. Soda is opened and heated (the gas)?
2. Solid sodium chloride is dissolved is water as it is
heated.
3. Carbon dioxide is dissolved in water as it is cooled.
4. Potassium chloride is added to a saturated solution.
5. The surface pressure of salt water is increased.
6. Surface pressure of dissolved oxygen is increased.
Figure 13.1 Types of intermolecular forces in solutions.

Ion-dipole Ion-induced dipole

(40-600) (3-15)

H bond Dipole-induced dipole

(10-40) (2-10)

Dispersion
Dipole-dipole (0.05-40)
(5-25)
 Solutions and Intermolecular Forces

When a solution forms, solute-solute attractions and

solvent-solvent attractions are replaced by solute-
solvent attractions.

This can only occur if the forces within the solute and
solvent are similar to the forces that replace them.
 Dual Polarity and Effects on Solubility

• Alcohols are organic compounds that have dual polarity.

• The general formula for an alcohol is CH3(CH2)nOH.
• The –OH group of an alcohol is polar.
• It interacts with water through H bonds and
• with hexane through weak dipole-induced dipole forces.
• The hydrocarbon portion is nonpolar.
• It interacts through weak dipole-induced dipole forces with water
• and through dispersion forces with hexane.
 Energy changes in Solution Formation

Step 1: Solute particles separate from each other. This

process is endothermic.
Solute (aggregated) + heat → solute (separated) DHsolute > 0

Step 2: Solvent particles separate from each other. This

process is endothermic.
Solvent (aggregated) + heat → solvent (separated) DHsolvent > 0

Step 3: Solute and solvent particles mix and form a

solution. This step is exothermic.
Solute (separated) + solvent (separated) → solution + heat DHmix < 0
 Solutions and Entropy

The entropy (S) of a system is related to the number of

ways a system can disperse its energy and therefore to the
freedom of motion of the particles.

Gases have the highest entropy of the three states of

matter.

A solution usually has higher entropy than the pure solute

and pure solvent.

An increase in entropy is favored in both physical and

chemical processes.
 Solubility and Equilibrium

A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of

dissolved solute at a given temperature in the presence of
undissolved solute.

Undissolved solute is in equilibrium with dissolved solute.

Solute (undissolved) solute (dissolved)

An unsaturated solution contains less than the

equilibrium concentration of dissolved solute. If more solute
is added, it will dissolve.
Figure 13.17 Equilibrium in a saturated solution.

solute (undissolved) solute (dissolved)

Figure 13.18 Sodium acetate crystallizing from a supersaturated
solution.

A supersaturated solution contains more

than the equilibrium concentration of solute. It
is unstable and any disturbance will cause
excess solute to crystallize immediately.
Figure 13.18 Sodium acetate crystallizing from a supersaturated
solution.

A supersaturated solution contains more

than the equilibrium concentration of solute. It
is unstable and any disturbance will cause
excess solute to crystallize immediately.
 Table 13.5 Concentration Definitions

Concentration Term Ratio

amount (mol) of solute

Molarity (M)
volume (L) of solution

amount (mol) of solute

Molality (m)
mass (kg) of solvent

mass of solute
Parts by mass
mass of solution

volume of solute
Parts by volume
volume of solution

Mole fraction (X) amount (mol) of solute

amount (mol) of solute + amount (mol) of solvent
Solution composition MASS percent

mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent

• a solution is prepared by dissolving 1.0gm of NaCl in
in 48 gm water. The solution has a mass of 49 gm ( 48
gm of water + 1 gm NaCl), there is 1 gm of solute
NaCl present. The mass percent of solution is then:

1 gm solute X 100%
49gm solution
= 2.0% Na Cl
 Calculating Mass percent

PROBLEM: A solution is prepared by mixing 1.00 gm ethanol C2H5 OH with 100.0 gm of

water. Calculate the mass percent of ethanol in this solution

We want to determine the mass percent of a given ethanol

PLAN:
solution
SOLUTION:

Given : 1.0 gm ethanol ( solute in

1 gm C2H5OH
100 g water ( solvent)
100 gm H20 + 1 gm C2H5OH X 100%

Mass percent = mass solute X 100%

1 gm
mass solution X 100%
101 gm

0.99% C2H5OH
 Calculating Mass Solute

PROBLEM: A cow’s milk typically contain 4.5% by mass of lactose. Calculate the mass
percent in 175 gms of milk

We want to determine the mass percent of lactose in 175 gms of

PLAN:
milk.
SOLUTION:
Given : 175 gms milk
milk contains 4.5% by mass lactose
Grams of solute
175 gms X 4.5% = X 100 X 175 gms
175 gms
Mass percent = mass solute X 100%
mass solution
175 gms X 4.5% = Grams of solute x 100%
100% 100%
Grams of solute
4.5% = X 100
175 gms 7.9 grms lactose = Grams of solute
concentration- amount of solute in solvent

• Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute per one liter of

solution.
M = mol Moles of solute
L Liters of solution
Ex A: What is the molarity of a 3.50L solution that contains 90.0g of NaCl
Molar mass = 58.44g/mol
90.0 g x 1mol 1.54 mol
58.44 g 3.50 L
= 1.54 mol = .440 M NaCl
Ex B:
How many moles of HCl in 0.8L of a 0.5M solution?

M = mol .5M = mol

L .8L

.8L(.5mol/L) = .4mol HCl

 Calculating Molarity1
PROBLEM: Calculate the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 11.5 gms of solid NaOH in enough
water to make 1.5 L solution

PLAN: We want to determine the concentration (M) of a solution of NaOH.

We need to know the # of moles of NaOH in 11.5 gms NaOH

SOLUTION: Given : 111.5 gms NaOh dissolve in 1.5 L water

M= moles of solute 0.288 mol NaOH

= = 0.192 M NaOH
Liters of solution 1.50L

1 mol NaOH
11.5 gms NaOH X
40 gms NaOH

= 0.288 mol NaOH

 Calculating Molarity numbers of Moles from Molarity

PROBLEM: How many Moles of Ag ions are present in 25 mL of 0.75 M AgNO3 solution

PLAN: We want to determine the # of moles of Ag ion in a solution

SOLUTION: Given : 25 mL of 0.75 M AgNO3

25 ml X 1L
= 0.025L
1000 mL

M= moles of solute
Liters of solution

Moles of solute
0.75M =
0.025 L

0.75M ( 0.025 L)= Moles of solute = 0.019 mol of Ag

Calculation dilution:
• DILUTION – is the process of adding more solvent to a solution
the number of moles of solute stays the same but the more water
is added, increasing the volume, so the molarity decreases.

moles of solute
M=
Liters of solution

Volume of dilute X Molarity of = moles of

Solution dilute solution solute present

M1 V1 = moles of solute = M2 V2
Relationship allows you to determine the new volume or mass when
diluting a solutions

Ex: what volume of 16 M sulfuric acid must be used to prepare 1.5 L of 0.10 M
sulfuric acid solution

M1 = 16 mol/L M2 = 0.10 mol/L

V1 = ? V2 = 1.5 L

Moles of solute = M1xV1 = M2 X V2

16 ( ?) = 0.10 ( 1.5L)
16 mol/L ( ?) = 0.10 mol/L( 1.5L)
16 mol/L 16 mol/L
X = 0.009 L
Stoichiometry of solution reactions
Stoichiometry
• (stoy-key-OM-uh-tree) derived from the Greek words “stoicheion” meaning as element and
“metron” meaning measure.

• Describes the quantitative relationships among elements in

compounds (composition stoichiometry) and among
substances as they undergo chemical changes (reaction
stoichiometry).
Step in solving stoichiometric problem
involving solutions:
Step 1: write the balanced equation for the reaction. For reactions
involving ions, it is best to write the net ionic equation
Step 2: calculate the moles of reactants
Step 3: determine which reactants is limiting
Step 4: calculate the moles of other reactants or products as required
Step 5: convert the units to other units as required.
Molecular Weight of Compounds
• Formula weight or molecular weight of a substance is the
sum of atomic weight of the element in the formula, each
takes the number of times that element occurs.
• The molecular weight of a compound is the sum of the
atomic weights of all the atoms present in a molecule.
Formula weight applies to both ionic and molecular
compounds.
Example:Calculate the molecular weight of
sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
Atomic weights: Na=23; C=12; O=16
Solution:
Na = 2 x 23 = 46
C = 1 x 12 =12
O = 3 x 16 = 48
106 amu or g/mol
 Solution StoichiometryCalculating mass of reactants and products

PROBLEM: Calculate the mass of a solid NaCl that must be added to a 1.5 L of 0.10 M of AgNO3 solution
to precipitate all of the Ag+ ion in the form of AgCl. Calculate the AgCl formed
PLAN: We want to determine the mass of Ag NaCl
We need to balance the equation between AgNO3 and NaCl
We need the molar mass of NaCl

STEP 1: write the balanced equation for the reaction

AgNO3 + NaCl  Na + Cl + Ag + NO3  AgCl
STEP 2 : calculate the moles of reactant
1.50L X 0.10mol Ag = 0.150 mol Ag
L
STEP 3 : determine w/c reactant is limiting in this situation just want to keep on adding Cl to consume
all Ag and produce AgCl. Thus the presence of Ag determines the amount of Cl needed
STEP 4 : Calculate the moles of Cl- required
0.150 mol Ag X 1mol Cl = 0.150 mol Cl
1 mol Ag
So 0.150 mole of AgCl will be formed
0.150 mol Ag+ + 0.150 mol Cl-  0.150 mol AgCl
 Solution StoichiometryCalculating mass of reactants and products

STEP 5 : Convert to grams of NaCl required

To produce 0.150 mol Cl we need 0.150 mole NaCl. We calculate the mass of NaCL required as
follows:
0.150 moleNaCl X 58.4 NaCl = 8.76gm NaCl
1 mol NaCl
The mass of Ag Cl formed is
0.150 AgCl X 143.3 gm AgCl = 21.5 gm AgCl
1 mol AgCl

0.150 mol Ag+ + 0.150 mol Cl-  0.150 mol AgCl

Colligative Properties of Solutions – NO MATH

Colligative properties are properties that depend on the

number of solute particles, not their chemical identity.
The number of particles in solution can be predicted from
the formula and type of the solute.
An electrolyte separates into ions when it dissolves in
water.
Strong electrolytes dissociate completely while weak electrolytes
dissociate very little.

A nonelectrolyte does not dissociate to form ions.

Each mole of dissolved compound yields 1 mole of particles in
solution.
ASSIGNMENT #
• Enumerate
• Strong acids
• Weak acids
• Strong bases
• Week bases
Neutralization reaction
These ideas are summarized below:
 Calculating Normality
PROBLEM: A solution of sulfuric acid contains 86 gm of H2SO4 per liter of solution. Calculate the normality

PLAN: We want to determine the normality of the given solution.

We need to know the Molar mass of H2SO4

SOLUTION: Given : 86 gm of H2SO4 per liter

equivalent 1.8 equiv H2SO4

N= = = 1.8 N H2SO4
L 1L

molar mass H2SO4 98.0 g

Equivalent wt. of H2SO4 = = = 49.0 g H2SO4
2 2
1 eq H2SO4
86 gm H2SO4 X = 1.8 equiv H2SO4
49.0 g H2SO4
 Interconverting Concentration Terms

• To convert a term based on amount (mol) to one based

on mass, you need the molar mass.
• To convert a term based on mass to one based on
volume, you need the solution density.
• Molality involves quantity of solvent, whereas the other
concentration terms involve quantity of solution.
 Figure 13.22 Conductivity of three types of electrolyte solutions.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

strong electrolyte weak electrolyte nonelectrolyte

ASSignment: enumerate
 Vapor Pressure Lowering
The vapor pressure of a solution containing a nonvolatile
nonelectrolyte is always lower than the vapor pressure of
the pure solvent.
Raoult’s law states that the vapor pressure of the solvent
above the solution is proportional to the mole fraction of
the solvent present.
Psolvent = solvent x P°solvent
The vapor pressure lowering is proportional to the mole
fraction of the solute present.

DPsolvent = solute x P°solvent

Figure 13.23 Effect of solute on the vapor pressure of solution.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Equilibrium is reached with a Equilibrium is reached with

given number of particles in fewer particles in the vapor.
the vapor.
 Boiling Point Elevation

A solution always boils at a higher temperature than the

pure solvent.
This colligative property is a result of vapor pressure lowering.

The boiling point elevation is proportional to the molality

of the solution.

DTb = Kbm

Kb is the molal boiling point elevation constant for the solvent.

 Freezing Point Depression

A solution always freezes at a lower temperature than the

pure solvent.

The freezing point depression is proportional to the molality

of the solution.

DTf = Kfm

Kf is the molal freezing point depression constant for the solvent.

Table 13.6 Molal Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point
Depression Constants of Several Solvents

Boiling Melting
Solvent Point (ºC)* Kb (ºC/m) Point (ºC) Kf (ºC/m)

Acetic acid 117.9 3.07 16.6 3.90

Benzene 80.1 2.53 5.5 4.90

Carbon disulfide 46.2 2.34 -111.5 3.83

Carbon tetrachloride 76.5 5.03 -23 30.

Chloroform 61.7 3.63 -63.5 4.70

Diethyl ether 34.5 2.02 -116.2 1.79

Ethanol 78.5 1.22 -117.3 1.99

Water 100.0 0.512 0.0 1.86
*At 1 atm.
 Osmotic Pressure

Osmosis is the movement of solvent particles from a

region of higher to a region of lower concentration through
a semipermeable membrane.

Solvent will always flow from a more dilute solution to a

more concentrated one.
Osmotic pressure is the pressure that must be applied to
prevent the net flow of solvent.

Π = MRT M = molarity
R = 0.0821 atm·L/mol·K
T = Kelvin temperature
Figure 13.25 The development of osmotic pressure.
 Volatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions

For a volatile nonelectrolyte, the vapor of the solution

contains both solute and solvent.

The presence of each volatile component lowers the

vapor pressure of the other, since each one lowers the
mole fraction of the other.

For such a solution, the vapor will have a higher mole

fraction of the more volatile component.
The vapor has a different composition than the solution.
 Strong Electrolyte Solutions
A strong electrolyte dissociates completely to form ions.
Each mole of solute gives more than 1 mol of dissolved
particles.
The formula of the compound indicates the expected
number of particles in solution.
Each mol of NaCl is expected to give 2 moles of dissolved ions.

The van’t Hoff factor takes into account the dissociation

of a strong electrolyte to predict the effect on the solution.

measured value for electrolyte solution

i =
expected value for nonelectrolyte solution
Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions

For vapor pressure lowering: DP = i(Csolute x Posolvent)

For boiling point elevation: DTb = i(bm)

For freezing point depression: DTf = i(fm)

For osmotic pressure: Π = i(MRT)

reversible reaction:
written with a double arrow

¾¾
2HgO(s) ¬ ¾
®
¾ 2Hg(l) + O2 (g)

chemical equilibrium:
when the rate of the
forward reaction equals the
rate of the reverse reaction
(the concentrations of its
products and reactants
remain unchanged)
Reversible reactions:
How can you tell if a reaction is
product favored, reactant
favored, or in equilibrium?
Ex:
NaCl(s)  Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
HIn(aq)  H+(aq) + In-(aq)
Yellow Blue
Co(H2O)6+2(aq) + 4Cl-(aq)  CoCl4-2(aq) + 6H2O(l)
Pink Purple / Blue
∆H = -50kJ/mol
4 Major Rate-Influencing Factors
1. Surface Area:  
2. Temperature  
3. Concentration  
4. Presence of a Catalyst
Le Châtelier’s principle: if a system at equilibrium is
subjected to a stress, the equilibrium is shifted in the
direction that tends to relieve the stress.
Changes in pressure, concentration, or temperature can alter the equilibrium
position and thereby change the relative amounts of reactants and products.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

• pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration, [H+]
• pH is calculated using the following formula:
pH = -log10[H+]
• pOH is a measure of the hydroxide ion concentration, [OH-]
pOH is calculated using the following formula:
pOH = -log10[OH-]
Predicting direction of equilibrium shift:
Temperature:
Heat speeds up a reaction, to a point
Adding heat favors the endothermic reaction,
(forms bonds), removing heat favors the
exothermic reaction (breaks bonds).

N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3(g)
Predicting direction of equilibrium shift:
There must first be a difference in number of molecules on each side of equation for
there to be an affect with pressure.

Pressure: only affect gasses

Increasing pressure tents to form bonds,
decrease number of molecules

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

Predicting direction of equilibrium shift:
Concentration:
Adding more reactant will force the production of
more product to reach equilibrium, and vice versa
(adding product forces more reactant)
¾¾
A + B¬ ¾
®C +D
¾
An increase in the concentration of A creates a stress.
To relieve the stress, some of the added A reacts with B to
form products C and D.
The equilibrium is reestablished with a higher concentration of
A than before the addition and a lower concentration of B.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

Common-Ion Effect
common-ion effect: phenomenon in which the
addition of an ion common to two solutes brings
about a shift
example: sodium sulfate is added to saturated
barium sulfate solution.
Na2SO4 ⇌2Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

BaSO4(s) ⇌ Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

Equilibrium shifts left, forming precipitate, reducing ionization

Predicting direction of equilibrium shift:
Temperature:
Heat speeds up a reaction, to a point
Adding heat favors the endothermic reaction,
(forms bonds), removing heat favors the
exothermic reaction (breaks bonds).

N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3(g)
End of chapter