Pressure Vessels

Pressure Vessel Design
© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Towler & SinnottChemical Engineering Design only. Do not copy
Chemical Engineering Design
• A pressure vessel is any vessel
that falls under the definition laid
down in the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, Section
VIII, Rules for the Construction
of Pressure Vessels (ASME
BPV Code Sec. VIII)
• The definition applies to most

process reactors, distillation
columns, separators (flashes
and decanters), pressurized Source: UOP
storage vessels and heat
exchangers

Towler & Sinnott Chemical Engineering Design only. Do not copy
Isn’t This Something to Leave to the
Mechanical Engineers?
• Chemical engineers are usually not properly trained or qualified to carry
out detailed mechanical design of vessels. Most mechanical designs are
completed by specialists in later phases of design
But
• The process design engineer needs to understand pressure vessel

design in order to generate good cost estimates (e.g. in Aspen ICARUS)
• Costs can vary discontinuously with vessel design

• A 10C change in temperature could double the vessel cost if it causes a change in code!
• Adding a component could cause a change in metallurgy that would mean moving to a more
expensive code design
• The process engineer will end up specifying the main constraints on the
vessel design: if you don’t know how to do this properly, you can’t really
design anything
• Pressure Vessel Design Codes
• Vessel Geometry & Construction
• Strength of Materials
• Vessel Specifications
• Materials of Construction
• Pressure Vessel Design Rules
• Fabrication, Inspection and Testing

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
• ASME BPV Code is the legally required standard for
pressure vessel design, fabrication, inspection and
testing in North America
Section
I Rules for construction of power boilers
II Materials Allowable stresses are
III Nuclear power plant components given in Sec. II
IV Rules for construction of heating boilers
V Nondestructive examination
VI Recommended rules for the care and operation of heating boilers
VII Recommended guidelines for the care of power boilers
VIII Rules for the construction of pressure vessels
Division 1 Most chemical plant vessels
Division 2 Alternative rules fall under Sec. VIII D.1 or D.2
Division 3 Alternative rules for the construction of high pressure vessels
IX Welding and brazing qualifications
X Fiber-reinforced plastic vessels Often used for bio-reactors
XI Rules for in service inspection of nuclear power plant components
XII Rules for construction and continued service of transport tanks
Advantages of Designing to Code
• The Code is a consensus best practice
• It is usually required by law

– Local requirements may vary (particularly overseas), but ASME
code is usually recognized as acceptable
– Always check for local regulations that may require stricter
standards
• Code rules are often applied even for vessels that don’t
require construction to code
– Savings of not following code rules are negligible as vessel
shops are set up to do everything to code


Pressure Vessel Shape
• What shape of pressure vessel uses the least amount of
metal to contain a given volume, pressure?
A sphere!
• Why is this shape not more widely used?

– Usually need to have an extended section of constant cross-
section to provide support for vessel internals, trays, distributors,
etc.
– It is much easier to obtain and maintain uniform flow in a
cylindrical bed of catalyst or packing than it is in a non-uniform
cross-section
– A cylinder takes up a lot less plot space for the same volume
– A sphere is more expensive to fabricate

Pressure Vessel Shape
• Most pressure vessels are at least 2:1 cylinders: 3:1 or 4:1
are most common:
2:1 3:1 4:1
(To scale)
• Distillation columns are obviously an exception: diameter

is set by flooding correlations and height by number of
trays
Vessel Size Restrictions
• Diameter gets very expensive if > 13.5 ft. Why?
• Height (length) gets very expensive if > 180 ft. Why?
Roughly 50 cranes can lift > 180 ft

Only 14 can lift > 240 ft
• Vessels that can’t be transported have to be fabricated on site

Vessel Orientation
• Usually vertical
– Easier to distribute fluids across a smaller cross section
– Smaller plot space
• Reasons for using horizontal vessels

– To promote phase separation
• Increased cross section = lower vertical velocity = less entrainment
• Decanters, settling tanks, separators, flash vessels
– To allow internals to be pulled for cleaning
• Heat exchangers

Head (Closure) Designs
• Hemispherical
– Good for high pressures
– Higher internal volume
– Most expensive to form & join to shell
– Half the thickness of the shell
• Ellipsoidal
– Cheaper than hemispherical and less
internal volume
– Depth is half diameter
– Same thickness as shell
– Most common type > 15 bar
• Torispherical
– Part torus, part sphere
– Similar to elliptical, but cheaper to fabricate
– Cheapest for pressures less than 15 bar

Tangent and Weld Lines
• Tangent line is where

curvature begins
• Weld line is where

weld is located
• Usually they are not

the same, as the
head is fabricated to
allow a weld away
from the geometrical
joint

Welded Joints
Butt weld
• Some weld types are not
permitted by ASME BPV Code
Double welded
butt weld • Many other possible variations,
including use of backing strips
Single fillet and joint reinforcement
lap weld
• Sec. VIII Div. 1 Part UW has
Double fillet details of permissible joints,
lap weld corners, etc.
• Welds are usually ground

Double fillet smooth and inspected
corner joint – Type of inspection depends on
Code Division

Gasketed Joints
• Used when vessel must be opened
(a) Full face gasket frequently for cleaning, inspection, etc.
(b) Gasket within bolt circle
(c) Spigot and socket
• Also used for instrument connections
(d) O-ring
• Not used at high temperatures or
pressures (gaskets fail)
• Higher fugitive emissions than welded

joints

Nozzles
• Vessel needs nozzles for
– Feeds, Products
– Hot &/or cold utilities
– Manways, bursting disks, relief valves
– Instruments
• Pressure, Level, Thermowells
• Sample points
• More nozzles = more cost
• Nozzles are usually on side of vessel, away

from weld lines, usually perpendicular to
shell
• Nozzles may or may not be flanged (as

shown) depending on joint type
• The number & location of nozzles are

usually specified by the process engineer

Nozzle Reinforcement
• Shell is weakened around nozzles, and must also support eccentric

loads from pipes
• Usually weld reinforcing pads to thicken the shell near the nozzle. Area
of reinforcement = or > area of nozzle: see Code requirements
Swaged Vessels
• Vessel does not have to be

constant diameter
• It is sometimes cheaper to make a

vessel with several sections of
different diameter
• Smaller diameters are usually at

the top, for structural reasons
• ASME BPV Code gives rules for

tapered sections

Vessel Supports
• Supports must allow for
thermal expansion in
operation
• Smaller vessels are usually

supported on beams – a
support ring or brackets are
welded to the vessel
• Horizontal vessels often

rest on saddles
• Tall vertical vessels are

often supported using a
skirt rather than legs. Can
you think why?

Vessel Supports
• Note that if the vessel rests on a

beam then the part of the vessel
below the support ring is hanging
and the wall is in tension from the
weight of material in the vessel,
the dead weight of the vessel itself
and the internal pressure
• The part of the vessel above the

support ring is supported and the
wall is in compression from the
dead weight (but probably in
tension from internal pressure)

Jacketed Vessels
• Heating or cooling jackets are
often used for smaller vessels
such as stirred tank reactors
• If the jacket can have higher

pressure than the vessel then
the vessel walls must be
designed for compressive
stresses
– Internal stiffening rings are often
used for vessels subject to
external pressure
– For small vessels the walls are just
made thicker

Vessel Internals
• Most vessels have at least
some internals
– Distillation trays
– Packing supports
– Distribution grids
– Heating or cooling coils
• These may require support

rings welded to the inside of
the vessel
• The internals & support rings

need to be considered when
calculating vessel weights for
Source: UOP stress analysis

Stress and Strain
L0
F F =F/A
ε = (L – L0)/L0
Cross-sectional area A
• Stress  = force divided by area over which it is applied

– Area = original cross section in a tensile test
– Stress can be applied directly or can result from an applied strain
– Examples: dead weight, internal or external pressure, etc.
• Strain ε = distortion per unit length

– Strain = elongation divided by original length in tensile test
– Strain can be applied directly or can result from an applied stress
– Example: thermal movement relative to fixed supports
Typical Stress-Strain Curve
for a Mild Steel

Creep
Low Temp High Temp Fracture
Stress or Strain
Stress or Strain
Stress Stress
Strain Strain
Time Time
• At high temperatures, strain can continue to increase

over time under constant load or displacement
– Creep strain = increase in strain at constant load
– Creep relaxation = reduction in stress at constant displacement
• Accumulated creep strain can lead to failure: creep

rupture
Principle Stresses & Maximum Shear
Stress
y
τxy • For a two-dimensional system the

x x principal stresses at any point
are:
τxy 1, 2 = ½(x+ y) ± ½[(y - x)2 + 4τxy2]
y
• The maximum shear stress is half
Normal stresses x, y the algebraic difference between
Shear stress τxy the principal stresses:
Maximum shear stress = ½(1 - 2)
For design purposes, often just use 1 - 2
• Compressive stresses are taken

as negative, tensile as positive
Failure of Materials
Failure of materials under combined tensile and shear stresses is not simple to
predict. Several theories have been proposed:
• Maximum Principal Stress Theory
– Component fails when one of the principal stresses exceeds the value that causes
failure in simple tension
• Maximum Shear Stress Theory

– Component fails when maximum shear stress exceeds the shear stress that causes
• Maximum Strain Energy Theory

– Component fails when strain energy per unit volume exceeds the value that causes
• BPV Code gives values for maximum allowable stress for different materials as a
function of temperature, incorporating a safety factor relative to the stress that
causes failure (ASME BPV Code Sec. II)
• Failure in compression is by buckling, which is much harder to predict than
tensile failure. The procedure in the Code is iterative. This should definitely be
left to a specialist

Loads Causing Stresses on Pressure
Vessel Walls
• Internal or external pressure • Bending moments due to supports
• Dead weight of vessel • Thermal expansion, differential

thermal expansion
• Weight of contents under normal
or upset conditions • Cyclic loads due to pressure or
temperature changes
• Weight of contents during
hydraulic testing • Wind & snow loads
• Weight of internals • Seismic loads
• Weight of attached equipment • Residual stresses from

(piping, decks, ladders, etc) manufacture
• Stresses at geometric • Loads due to friction (solids flow)

discontinuities
All these must be combined to determine principal stresses
Example: Wind Load
• Wind exerts a pressure on one side
of the vessel
• Resulting force acts like a uniform

Wind
beam load and exerts a bending

moment on vessel
• Windward wall is placed in tension,

leeward in compression
Bending
moment
• Vortex shedding can cause vibration
– Hence spirals on chimneys
– Usually not needed for columns due to
ladders, pipes, decks, etc.

Thin Cylinder Subject to Internal
Pressure
Inside diameter, D
• Forces due to internal pressure are balanced by
shear stresses in wall
Wall thickness, t
• Horizontal section:
 D2
P L  D t
4
Height, h
PD
L L 
4t
• Vertical section:
H
Ph D H 2h t
PD
Longitudinal stress, L H 
2t
Hoop stress, H
• Similar equations can be derived for other
geometries such as heads (see Ch 13)


Vessel Specifications Set By the
Process Engineer
• The process engineer will usually specify the following
parameters based on process requirements:
– Vessel size and shape (volume, L and D)
– Vessel orientation and elevation
– Maximum and minimum design pressure
– Maximum and minimum design temperature
– Number of nozzles needed (& location)
– Vessel internals
And often also:
– Material of construction
– Corrosion allowance
• There is often a lot of dialogue with the mechanical

engineer to set the final specifications
Design Pressure
• Normal operating pressure
• The pressure at which you expect the process to usually be operated
• Maximum operating pressure

• The highest pressure expected including upset conditions such as startup,
shutdown, emergency shutdown
• Design pressure
• Maximum operating pressure plus a safety margin
• Margin is typically 10% of maximum operating pressure or 25 psi, whichever is
greater
• Usually specify pressure at top of vessel, where relief valve is located
• The BPV Code Sec. VIII Div. 1 doesn’t say much on how
to set the design pressure
• “..a pressure vessel shall be designed for at least the most severe condition of
coincident pressure and temperature expected in normal operation.”

Design for Vacuum
• The minimum internal pressure a vessel can experience is
full vacuum (-14.7 psig)
• Vacuum can be caused by:

– Intentional process operation under vacuum (including start-up and
shutdown)
– Cooling down a vessel that contains a condensable vapor
– Pumping out or draining contents without allowing enough vapor to
enter
– Operator error
• Vacuum puts vessel walls into compressive stress
• What happens if vessel is not designed for vacuum

conditions?
Vessel Subjected to Excess Vacuum
• Normal practice is to design for vacuum if it can be

expected to occur
Design Temperatures
• Maximum:
– Highest mean metal temperature expected in operation, including
transient conditions, plus a margin
– Margin is typically plus 50F
• Minimum
– Lowest mean metal temperature expected in operation, including
transient conditions, upsets, auto-refrigeration, climatic conditions,
anything else that could cause cooling, minus a margin
– Margin is typically -25F
– MDMT: minimum design metal temperature is important as metals
can become brittle at low temperatures
• Designer should allow for possible failure of upstream

equipment (e.g., loss of coolant on upstream cooler)

Design Temperature Considerations
• Due to creep, maximum allowable stress drops off

rapidly at higher temperatures
– Forces designer to use more expensive alloys
• BPV Code Sec. VIII Div.2 cannot be applied for design

temperatures > 900F (no creep safety factor in Div.2)
• The Code allows design of vessels with different

temperature zones
– Very useful for high temperature vessels
– Not usually applied to medium temperature vessels such as heat
exchangers, distillation columns

Design Temperature & Pressure
Exercise 1
• What is the design

100 psig
180 F pressure?
120 + 25 = 145 psig
• What is the design

temperature?
340 + 50 = 390F
120 psig
340 F

Design Temperature & Pressure
Exercise 2
Oil Steam
400 psig 40 barg • What is the shell-side
120 F 482 F
design pressure?
588 + 58 = 646 psig
• What is the tube-side

design temperature?
390 psig 482 + 50 = 532F
450 F


Materials Selection Criteria
• Safety
– Material must have sufficient strength at design conditions
– Material must be able to withstand variation (or cycling) in
process conditions
– Material must have sufficient corrosion resistance to survive in
service between inspection intervals
• Ease of fabrication
• Availability in standard sizes (plates, sections, tubes)
• Cost
– Includes initial cost and cost of periodic replacement

Commonly Used Materials
• Steels
– Carbon steel, Killed carbon steel – cheap, widely available
– Low chrome alloys (<9% Cr) – better corrosion resistance than CS, KCS
– Stainless steels:
• 304 – cheapest austenitic stainless steel
• 316 – better corrosion resistance than 304, more expensive
• 410
• Nickel Alloys
– Inconel, Incolloy – high temperature oxidizing environments
– Monel, Hastelloy – expensive, but high corrosion resistance, used for
strong acids
• Other metals such as aluminum and titanium are used for special
applications. Fiber reinforced plastics are used for some low
temperature & pressure applications. See Ch 7 for more details

Relative Cost of Metals
Metal Type or grade Price Max allowable stress Relative cost rating
($/lb) (ksi = 1000 psi)
Carbon steel A-285 0.27 12.9 1

Austenitic stainless steel 304 0.90 20 2.2
316 1.64 20 4
Aluminum alloy A03560 1.27 8.6 2.4
Copper C10400 3.34 6.7 27
Nickel 99%Ni 8.75 10 48
Incoloy N08800 3.05 20 7.5
Monel N04400 6.76 18.7 20
Titanium R50250 9.62 10 27
• The maximum allowable stress values are at 40ºC (100ºF) and are taken from
ASME BPV Code Sec. II Part D. The code should be consulted for values at
other temperatures. Several other grades exist for most of the materials listed.
• Finished vessel relative costs are not the same as materials relative costs as
vessel cost also includes manufacturing costs, labor and fabricator’s profit

Corrosion Allowance
• Wall thicknesses calculated using BPV Code equations

are for the fully corroded state
• Usually add a corrosion allowance of 1/16” to 3/16” (1.5

to 5 mm)
• Smaller corrosion allowances are used for heat transfer

equipment, where wall thickness can affect heat transfer


Determining Wall Thickness
• Under ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1, minimum wall

thickness is 1/16” (1.5mm) with no corrosion allowance
• Most pressure vessels require much thicker walls to

withstand governing load
– High pressure vessels: internal pressure usually governs
– Thickness required to resist vacuum usually governs for lower
pressure vessels
– For vessels designed for low pressure, no vacuum, then analysis
of principal stresses may be needed
– Usual procedure is to design for internal pressure (or vacuum),
round up to nearest available standard size and then check for
other loads

Design for Internal Pressure
• ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1 specifies using the larger
of the shell thicknesses calculated
– For hoop stress
Pi Di
t
2SE  1.2 Pi
– or for longitudinal stress
Pi Di
t
4 SE  0.8 Pi
S is the maximum allowable stress
E is the welded joint efficiency
• Values of S are tabulated in ASME BPV Code Sec.II for

different materials as function of temperature

Some Maximum Allowable Stresses
Under ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1, Taken From Sec. II Part D
Material Grade Min Tensile Min Yield Maximum Maximum allowable stress at temperature F
strength strength temperature (ksi = 1000 psi)
(ksi) (ksi) (ºF) 100 300 500 700 900
Carbon steel A285 45 24 900 12.9 12.9 12.9 11.5 5.9

Gr A
Killed carbon A515 60 32 1000 17.1 17.1 17.1 14.3 5.9
Steel Gr 60
Low alloy steel A387 60 30 1200 17.1 16.6 16.6 16.6 13.6
1 ¼ Cr, ½ Mo, Si Gr 22
Stainless steel 410 65 30 1200 18.6 17.8 17.2 16.2 12.3
13 Cr
Stainless steel 304 75 30 1500 20.0 15.0 12.9 11.7 10.8
18 Cr, 8 Ni
Stainless steel 347 75 30 1500 20.0 17.1 15.0 13.8 13.4
18 Cr, 10 Ni, Cb
Stainless steel 321 75 30 1500 20.0 16.5 14.3 13.0 12.3
18 Cr, 10 Ni, Ti
Stainless steel 316 75 30 1500 20.0 15.6 13.3 12.1 11.5
16 Cr, 12 Ni, 2 Mo

Welded Joint Categories
ASME BPV Code has four categories of welds:
A. Longitudinal or spiral welds in the main shell, necks or nozzles, or

circumferential welds connecting hemispherical heads to the main
shell, necks or nozzles.
B. Circumferential welds in the main shell, necks or nozzles or

connecting a formed head other than hemispherical.
C. Welds connecting flanges, tubesheets or flat heads to the main

shell, a formed head, neck or nozzle.
D. Welds connecting communicating chambers or nozzles to the main

shell, to heads or to necks.

Welded Joint Efficiencies Allowed Under
ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1
Joint Description Joint Category Degree of Radiographic Examination
Full Spot None
Double-welded butt joint A, B, C, D 1.0 0.85 0.70

or equivalent
Single-welded butt joint A, B, C, D 0.9 0.8 0.65

with backing strip
Single-welded butt joint A, B, C NA NA 0.60

without backing strip
Double full fillet lap A, B, C NA NA 0.55

joint
Single full fillet lap B, C NA NA 0.50

joint with plug welds
Single full fillet lap A, B NA NA 0.45

joint without plug welds
Closures Subject to Internal Pressure
• Hemispherical heads Pi Di
t
4 SE  0.4 Pi
• Ellipsoidal heads Pi Di
t
2 SE  0.2 Pi
• Torispherical heads
0.885 Pi Rc
t
SE  0.1Pi
Rc is the crown radius: see Ch 13

Example
• What is the wall thickness required for a 10ft diameter 304
stainless steel vessel with design pressure 500 psi and
design temperature 700F?
• From the table, S = 11700 psi
• Assume double-welded butt joint with spot radiography, E = 0.85
• For hoop stress Pi Di 500 10 12

t   3.11 inches
2 SE  1.2 Pi 2 11700  0.85  1.2  500
• For longitudinal stress

Pi Di 500 10 12
t   1.49 inches
4SE  0.8 Pi 4 11700  0.85  0.8  500
• So hoop stress governs, choose t = 3.25 or 3.5 inches,

depending on what’s readily available as plate stock
Software for Pressure Vessel Design
• Rules for external pressure, combined loads are more
complex
• Design methods and maximum allowable stresses are

coded into software used by specialist designers, such as:
• COMPRESS (Codeware Inc.) has free demo version
http://www.codeware.com/support/tutorials/compress_video_tutorial.html
• Pressure Vessel Suite (Computer Engineering Inc.)
• PVElite and CodeCalc (COADE Inc.)
• Simple ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1 methods are

available in Aspen ICARUS
• Good enough for an initial cost estimate if the process engineer puts in realistic
vessel specifications
• Useful for checking to see if changes to specifications give cost discontinuities
• Not good enough for detailed vessel design

Example
• What is the cost of a 10ft diameter, 100ft long 304 stainless
steel vessel with design pressure 500 psi and design
temperature 700F?

Example
In Aspen ICARUS, if we just enter the

dimensions and material:

Example
Total cost $575,500

Example: With More Complete Specifications

Example: With More Complete Specifications
Total cost is now

$1,814,400

Example: ICARUS Results
• ICARUS finds a wall thickness of 3.308”, based on 3.183”
for hoop stress and 0.125” corrosion allowance
• Vacuum design thickness is 1.05”, so internal pressure is

governing
• Not clear why the ICARUS hoop stress calculation comes

out different, but possibly due to considering combined loads
under wind or seismic conditions
• Note that proper specification of vessel design changed cost

by factor 3.15
• Results are good enough for preliminary costing, but not for
mechanical design

Vessel Manufacture
• Shell is usually made by rolling plate and then welding
along a seam:
– Difficult to form small diameters or thick shells by this method

– Long vessels are usually made in 8’ sections and butt welded
• Thicker vessels are made by more expensive drum

forging – direct from ingots
• Closures are usually forged

– Hence restricted to increments of 6” in diameter
• Nozzles, support rings etc. are welded on to shell and

heads
Post Weld Heat Treating (PWHT)
• Forming and joining (welding) can leave residual

stresses in the metal
• Post-weld heat treatment is used to relax these stresses
• Guidelines for PWHT are given in the ASME BPV Code

Sec. VIII D.1 Part UW-40
• PWHT requirements depend on material and thickness

at weld:
- Over 38mm for carbon steel
- Over 16mm for low alloy


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Pressure Vessel Design

© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

• The definition applies to most

© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

• The process design engineer needs to understand pressure vessel

• Costs can vary discontinuously with vessel design

• Pressure Vessel Design Codes

• Vessel Geometry & Construction

• Pressure Vessel Design Rules

• Fabrication, Inspection and Testing

© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

• The Code is a consensus best practice

• It is usually required by law

© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

• Pressure Vessel Design Codes

• Vessel Geometry & Construction

• Pressure Vessel Design Rules

• Fabrication, Inspection and Testing

© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

• Why is this shape not more widely used?

© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

2:1 3:1 4:1

• Distillation columns are obviously an exception: diameter

• Diameter gets very expensive if > 13.5 ft. Why?

• Height (length) gets very expensive if > 180 ft. Why?

Roughly 50 cranes can lift > 180 ft

• Vessels that can’t be transported have to be fabricated on site

• Reasons for using horizontal vessels

© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

• Tangent line is where

• Weld line is where

• Usually they are not

© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

• Welds are usually ground

© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

• Higher fugitive emissions than welded

© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

• More nozzles = more cost

• Nozzles are usually on side of vessel, away

• Nozzles may or may not be flanged (as

• The number & location of nozzles are

© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

• Shell is weakened around nozzles, and must also support eccentric

• Vessel does not have to be

• It is sometimes cheaper to make a

• Smaller diameters are usually at

• ASME BPV Code gives rules for

© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

• Smaller vessels are usually

• Horizontal vessels often

• Tall vertical vessels are

© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

• Note that if the vessel rests on a

• The part of the vessel above the

© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

• If the jacket can have higher

© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

• These may require support

• The internals & support rings

• Pressure Vessel Design Codes

• Vessel Geometry & Construction

• Pressure Vessel Design Rules