Elastic Properties of Solids

Topics Discussed in Kittel, Ch. 3, pages 73-85

 Hooke's “Law”
• A property of an ideal spring of spring constant k is that
it takes twice as much force to stretch the spring twice as
far. That is, if it is stretched a distance x, the restoring
force is given by F = - kx. The spring is then said to obey
Hooke's “Law”
• An elastic medium is one in which a disturbance can be
analyzed in terms of Hooke’s “Law” forces.
Consider the propagation of a mechanical wave
(disturbance) in a solid.
• We are interested in the case of very long wavelengths,
when the wavelength is much, much larger than the
interatomic spacing:  >> a so that the solid can be treated
as a continuous elastic medium & the fact that there are
atoms on a lattice is irrelevant to the wave propagation.
 A Prototype Hooke’s Law System
A Mass-Spring System
in which a mass m is
attached to an ideal
spring of spring
constant k. That is, the

Simple Harmonic
Oscillator
(SHO)
 Simple Harmonic Oscillator
Stretch the spring a distance A & release it:

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Fig. 3
• In the absence of friction, the oscillations go on forever.
• The Newton’s 2nd Law equation of motion is:
F = ma = m(d2x/dt2) = -kx
Define: (ω0)2  k/m  (d2x/dt2) + (ω0)2 x = 0
• A standard 2nd order time dependent differential equation!
 Simple Harmonic Oscillator
Hooke’s “Law” for a vertical spring (take + x as down):
Static Equilibrium:
∑Fx = 0 = mg - kx0
or x0 = (mg/k)
Newton’s 2nd Law
Equation of Motion:
The same as before,
but the equilibrium
position is x0 instead
of x = 0
• An Elastic Medium is defined to be one in
which a disturbance from equilibrium
obeys Hooke’s “Law” so that a local
deformation is proportional to an applied force.
• If the applied force gets too large, Hooke’s “Law”
no longer holds. If that happens the medium is no
longer elastic. This is called the Elastic Limit.
• The Elastic Limit is the point at which
permanent deformation occurs, that is, if
the force is taken off the medium, it will not
return to its original size and shape.
 Sound Waves
• Sound waves are mechanical waves
which propagate through a material
medium (solid, liquid, or gas) at a speed
which depends on the elastic & inertial
properties of the medium. There are 2
types of wave motion for sound waves:
Longitudinal
and
Transverse
 Sound Waves
• Because we are considering only long wavelength
mechanical waves ( >> a) the presence of atoms is
irrelevant & the medium may be treated as continuous.
Longitudinal Waves
 Sound Waves
• Because we are considering only long wavelength
mechanical waves ( >> a) the presence of atoms is
irrelevant & the medium may be treated as continuous.
Longitudinal Waves

Transverse Waves
• Sound waves propagate through solids. This tells us that
wavelike lattice vibrations of wavelength long compared
to the interatomic spacing are possible.
• The detailed atomic structure is unimportant for
these waves & their propagation is governed by
the macroscopic elastic properties of the crystal.
• So, the reason for discussing sound waves is that they
correspond to the low frequency, long wavelength limit
of the more general lattice vibrations we have been
considering up to now.
• At a given frequency and in a given direction in a
crystal it is possible to transmit 3 different kinds of
sound waves, differing in their direction of
polarization and in general also in their velocity.
 Elastic Waves
• So, consider sound waves propagating in a solid,
when their wavelength is very long, so that the
solid may be treated as a continous medium.
Such waves are referred to as elastic waves.
Consider Longitudinal Elastic Wave
Propagation in a Solid Bar
• At the point x the
elastic displacement (or A
change in length) is U(x) x x+dx
& the strain e is
defined as the change dU
in length per unit length. e
dx
• In general, a Stress S at A
a point in space is x x+dx
defined as the force per dU
unit area at that point. e
dx
• Hooke’s “Law” tells us that, at point x &
time t in the bar, the stress S produced by an
elastic wave propagation is proportional to
the strain e. That is:
C  Young’s Modulus
• To analyze the dynamics
A
of the bar, choose an
x x+dx
arbitrary segment of
dU
length dx as shown e
above. Use Newton’s dx
2nd Law to write for the
motion of this segment, C  Young’s Modulus

 2u
(  Adx) 2   S ( x  dx)  S ( x)  A
t

Mass  Acceleration = Net Force resulting from stress

 Equation of Motion du
e
 2u dx
(  Adx) 2   S ( x  dx)  S ( x)  A
t S  C.e
S u
 S ( x  dx )  S ( x )   dx S  C.
x
x
S  2u
 2u  2u  C. 2
So, this becomes: (  Adx) 2  C 2 Adx x x
t x
Cancelling common terms in Adx gives:
This is the wave equation a plane
 2u  2u
 2 C 2 wave solution which gives the
t x sound velocity vs:   v k
s
i ( kx t )
Plane wave solution: u  Ae vs  C/

k = wave number = (2π/λ), ω = frequency, A = amplitude

 • Unlike the case for the discrete lattice, the dispersion relation
ω(k) in this long wavelength limit is the simple equation:
  vs k
• At small λ (k → ∞), scattering from
discrete atoms occurs.
ω
• At long λ (k → 0), (continuum) no
Continuum
scattering occurs.
• When k increases the sound
velocity decreases. Discrete
• As k increases further, the
scattering becomes greater since the k
0
strength of scattering increases as
the wavelength decreases, and the
velocity decreases even further.
 Speed of Sound
• The speed VL with which a longitudinal elastic wave
moves through a medium of density ρ is given by:

VL   
C C  Bulk Modulus
 ρ  Mass Density
• The velocity of sound is in general a function of the
direction of propagation in crystalline materials.
• Solids will sustain the propagation of transverse waves,
which travel more slowly than longitudinal waves.
• The larger the elastic modulus & the smaller the
density, the larger the sound speed is.
 Speed of Sound for Several Common Solids
Nearest Density Elastic bulk Calculate Observed
Structure Neighbor modulus d Wave speed of
Solid Distance
ρ Y Speed sound
Type
(A°) (kg/m3) (1010 N/m2) (m/s) (m/s)

Sodium B.C.C 3.71 970 0.52 2320 2250

Copper F.C.C 2.55 8966 13.4 3880 3830
Aluminum F.C.C 2.86 2700 7.35 5200 5110
Lead F.C.C 3.49 11340 4.34 1960 1320
Silicon Diamond 2.35 2330 10.1 6600 9150
Germanium Diamond 2.44 5360 7.9 3830 5400
NaCl Rocksalt 2.82 2170 2.5 3400 4730

Most calculated VL values are in reasonable agreement

with measurements. Sound speeds are of the order of 5000
m/s in typical metallic, covalent & ionic solids :