SOLID MATERIALS

Intended Learning Outcomes

Students should be able to:
Differentiate intermolecular forces from
intramolecular forces
Differentiate crystalline from amorphous
solid
Describe different types of crystals
 SOLIDS
-Molecules are held rigidly in position
-Molecules have no freedom of motion
-Less empty space in solids than liquids
-Virtually incompressible
-Molecules are arranged in regular configurations in
three dimensions
-Has definite shape and volume
INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
- hold atoms together in a molecule
-stabilize individual molecules
-involve chemical bonding
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
-Attractive forces between molecules
- much weaker than intramolecular forces
TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Van der Waals Forces
- dipole-dipole
-Hydrogen bonding
- dipole-induced dipole
-dispersion forces
Ion-dipole forces
VAN DER WAALS FORCES
 driven by induced electrical
interactions between two or more atoms
or molecules that are very close to each
other.
 distance-dependent interactions between
atoms or molecules
 the weakest of all intermolecular
attractions between molecules.
 Dipole – Dipole interaction
-attractive forces between polar
molecules
-Polar molecules possess dipole moments
-The larger the dipole moment the
greater the force
-Dipole moment – quantitative measure
of the polarity of bond
Dipole moment = Charge x distance
between charges
 Hydrogen Bonding
 A special type of dipole-
dipole interaction between
hydrogen atom in a polar
bond such as N-H, O-H or F-H,
and an electronegative O, N
or F atom
 Dispersion Forces or London Forces
 Induced in atoms or molecules
 Induced dipole – separation of (+) and (-) charges in
an atom or non-polar molecule due to the proximity of
an ion or polar molecules
Polarizability- ease with which the electron distribution
in the atom can be distorted
Ion- Induced dipole
interaction

 attractiveinteraction
between an ion and the
induced dipole
Dipole-induced
dipole interaction
 Results when a polar
molecule induces a dipole in
an atom or in a non-polar
molecule by disturbing the
arrangement of electrons in
the non-polar species.
 Ion-Dipole Forces
attraction between an ion and a
polar molecules
The strength of interaction
depends on the charge and size of
ions and on magnitude of the
dipole moment, size of molecules
Most commonly found in
solutions. Especially important for
solutions of ionic compounds in
polar liquids.
Categories of Solids
1. CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
- possess rigid and long-range order
- its atoms, molecules or ions occupy
specific positions and have regular
structure
2. AMORPHOUS SOLIDS
- lack regular three-dimensional
arrangement of atom
- without regular structure
- example: glass
CRYSTALLINE MATERIAL

One in which atoms (or

ions) are situated in a
repeating or periodic array
over large atomic distance
• atoms pack in periodic,
3D arrays
• typical of:
crystalline SiO2 -metals
-many ceramics
Adapted from Fig. 3.18(a),
Callister 6e.
-some polymers

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NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL

atoms have no periodic

packing
amorphous
• occurs for:
-complex structures
-rapid cooling

Noncrystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.18(a),
Callister 6e.

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 GLASS STRUCTURE
• Basic Unit: • Glass is amorphous
4- • Amorphous structure
Si0 4 tetrahedron occurs by adding impurities
Si4+ (Na+,Mg2+,Ca2+, Al3+)
O2-
• Impurities:
interfere with formation of
crystalline structure.

• Quartz is crystalline
SiO2:

(soda glass)
Adapted from Fig. 12.11,
Callister, 6e.

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UNIT CELL – basic structural unit of a crystalline solid

Seven Types of unit cells

LATTICE POINT – each sphere representing an atom, ion or molecules

COORDINATION NUMBER- number of atoms surrounding an atom in a

crystal lattice.
PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALLINE SOLID
(determined by attractive forces that hold the particles
together)

-Melting point
- Density
- Hardness
 Classification of Crystals
(based on types of forces)
1. IONIC
2. MOLECULAR
3. COVALENT
4. METALLIC
 IONIC CRYSTAL
Consists of ions held by ionic
bonds
Held by electrostatic attraction
Hard, brittle, high melting point,
poor conductor of heat and
electricity Face centered cubic unit
cell of the NaCl
Examples: NaCl, LiF, MgO, structure.
sodium chloride lattice
STRUCTURE OF COMPOUNDS: NaCl
• Compounds: Often have similar close-packed structures.
• Structure of NaCl • Close-packed directions
--along cube edges.

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson) (Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

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MOLECULAR CRYSTAL
Consists of atoms or
molecules held together
by van der waals forces
and/or hydrogen bonding
Soft, low melting point,
poor conductor of heat
and electricity
Example: sucrose, iodine
crystal, water
In ice each each molecule is
hydrogen bonded to 4 other
molecules
COVALENT CRYSTALS
Called covalent network crystals
Held together by covalent bond
Hard, high melting point,
Example: Diamond (C),
Quartz (SiO2)
The structure of diamond
The giant covalent
structure of diamond
Carbon has an electronic
arrangement of 1s2,2s22p2.
In diamond, each carbon
shares electrons with four
other carbon atoms -
forming four single bonds.
The structure of diamond
The diamond
crystal bond
structure gives the
gem its hardness
and differentiates it
from graphite.
The physical properties of diamond

has a very high melting point (almost 4000°C). Very strong

carbon-carbon covalent bonds have to be broken throughout
the structure before melting occurs.
is very hard. This is again due to the need to break very strong
covalent bonds operating in 3-dimensions.
doesn't conduct electricity. All the electrons are held tightly
between the atoms, and aren't free to move.
is insoluble in water and organic solvents. There are no possible
attractions which could occur between solvent molecules and
carbon atoms which could outweigh the attractions between
the covalently bound carbon atoms.
METALLIC CRYSTAL
Held by metallic bond
In a metal the bonding electrons are spread
or delocalized over the entire crystal
Soft to hard, low to high melting point,
 good conductor of heat and electricity
Examples: All metallic elements: Na, Mg, Fe,
Cu
METALLIC CRYSTALS
• tend to be densely packed.
• have several reasons for dense packing:
-Typically, only one element is present, so all atomic
radii are the same.
-Metallic bonding is not directional.
-Nearest neighbor distances tend to be small in
order to lower bond energy.

• have the simplest crystal structures.

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Metallic bonding in sodium
described as "an array of positive
ions in a sea of electrons".
The metal is made up of atoms
Each positive centre in the diagram
represents all the rest of the atom
apart from the outer electron, but
that electron hasn't been lost - it
may no longer have an attachment
to a particular atom, but it's still
there in the structure. Sodium
metal is therefore written as Na -
not Na+
METALLIC
STRUCTURES

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1. SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE (SC)
• Rare due to poor packing (only Po has this structure)
• Close-packed directions are cube edges.
• Coordination # = 6
(# nearest neighbors)

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

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ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR
It is a fraction of a unit cell that is occupied by “hard sphere” atom.

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2. BODY CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE
(BCC)
• Close packed directions are cube diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.
• Coordination # = 8

Adapted from Fig. 3.2,

Callister 6e.

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson) 11

3. FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE
(FCC)
• Close packed directions are face diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the face-centered atoms are shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.
• Coordination # = 12

Adapted from Fig. 3.1(a),

Callister 6e.

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

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 4. HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED
STRUCTURE (HCP)
• ABAB... Stacking Sequence
• 3D Projection • 2D Projection

A sites

B sites

A sites
Adapted from Fig. 3.3,
Callister 6e.

• Coordination # = 12
• APF = 0.74

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