The Future

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Introduction to FORTRAN
OBJECTIVES
 History and purpose of FORTRAN
 FORTRAN essentials
 Program structure
 Data types and specification statements
 Essential program control
 FORTRAN I/O
 subfunctions and subroutines
 Extensions for Fortran 95
 Pitfalls and common coding problems
 Sample problems

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 FORTRAN History
 One of the oldest computer languages
 created by John Backus and released in 1957
 designed for scientific and engineering computations
 Version history
 FORTRAN 1957
 FORTRAN II
 FORTRAN IV
 FORTRAN 66 (released as ANSI standard in 1966)
 FORTRAN 77 (ANSI standard in 1977)
 FORTRAN 90 (ANSI standard in 1990)
 FORTRAN 95 (ANSI standard version)
 FORTRAN 2003 (ANSI standard version)
 Many different “dialects” produced by computer vendors (Digital
VAX Fortran, now Intel Fortran)
 Large majority of existing engineering software is coded in
FORTRAN (various versions)

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 Statement Format
 FORTRAN before 90 requires a fixed format
PROGRAM MAIN
C COMMENTS ARE ALLOWED IF A “C” IS PLACED IN COLUMN #1
DIMENSION X(10)
READ(5,*) (X(I),I=1,10)
WRITE(6,1000) X
1000 FORMAT(1X,’THIS IS A VERY LONG LINE OF TEXT TO SHOW HOW TO CONTINUE ’
* ‘THE STATEMENT TO A SECOND LINE’,/,10F12.4)

1-5 6 7-72 Statements 73-80

Label Optional
Line #s
Any character: continuation line

 Based on the punch card in use when Fortran was

created

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 Statement Format
 FORTRAN fixed format
 “C” in column 1 indicates that line is a comment
 columns 1-5 are reserved for statement labels
– statement labels are not required unless the statement is the target
of a goto
– labels are numeric values only
 column 6 is the continuation flag
– any character in column 6, other than space or “0”, indicates that
this line is a continuation of the previous line
– there is usually a limit of 19 on the number of continuations
 columns 7-72 are contain Fortran statements
 columns 73-80 is for sequence information
– only of any use when using punch cards

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 Statement Format
 IBM punch card

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 Building a FORTRAN Program
 FORTRAN is a complied language (like C) so the source
code (what you write) must be converted into machine
code before it can be executed (e.g. Make command)

FORTRAN Link with Executable

FORTRAN
Program Compiler Libraries File

Executable
Source Code Object Code Code
Libraries

Make Changes Test & Debug Execute

in Source Code Program Program

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 Structure of a Fortran Program
 Fortran is a compiled language
 all memory is allocated statically at compile time
– there is no standard method for allocating additional memory in a
Fortran program before Fortran 90
– memory is allocated in a predictable manner, a fact which can be
used by the programmer to his advantage or distress
 there is no official recursion before Fortran 90
– some vendor implementations had recursive capabilities
– static memory allocation is at odds with the use of a stack which is
needed for recursion
 Fortran does not guarantee value of un-initialized memory

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 Structure of a Fortran Program
 Fortran consists of program units
 program
 function
 subroutine
 block data
 The program unit contains the main code and the point
where execution starts
 in Fortran 77 a program begins with the program statement
 earlier versions of Fortran did not have a program statement
unless a vendor dialect provided one
 the end statement terminates the program unit

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 Fortran Program
 The program unit contains the main code and the point
where execution starts
 in Fortran 77 a program begins with the program statement
 earlier versions of Fortran did not have a program statement
unless a vendor dialect provided one
 the end statement terminates the program unit
– marks end of statements that belong to program
– during execution it will cause the program to halt
 a program unit may contain internal sub-programs
– internal functions
– internal subroutines

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 Fortran Subroutine
 The subroutine unit contains Fortran code that can be
called from other Fortran code
 a subroutine begins with a subroutine statement
 contains a name for the subroutine
 a list of formal arguments
 subroutines may be internal or external
 an internal subroutine is included in the code of program unit
and is only callable by the program
 an external subroutine is created outside of a program unit and
is callable from everywhere

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Fortran Subroutine

SUBROUTINE MULT(A,B,C)
C = A * B
RETURN
END

CALL MULT(5.0,X,VALUE)

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 Fortran Function
 The function unit contains Fortran code that can be
called from other Fortran code
 It differs from a subroutine in that it returns a value
 a subroutine begins with a function statement
 contains a name for the function
 a list of formal arguments
 specifies a return type
 functions may be internal or external
 an internal function is included in the code of program unit and is
only callable by the program
 an external function is created outside of a program unit and is
callable from everywhere

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Fortran Function

REAL FUNCTION MULT(A,B)

MULT = A * B
RETURN
END

VALUE = MULT(5.0,X)

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 Fortran Block Data
 The Block Data program unit does not contain any
executable code
 Used to initialize memory in common blocks
 It is not “called” by any code in the program, it contains
instructions for the initializing memory when the program
is loaded into memory for running

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Fortran Block Data

BLOCK DATA
COMMON/MEM/A,B
DATA A,B/10.0,-3.14/
END

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 Fortran Program Organization
 Program units have a statement order
 header (program, subroutine, function, block data)
 declarations (variables and types)
 data initialization (data statements)
 executable statements (and format statements)
 internal subprogram units
 end statement

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 Fortran Variable
 Variables represent the memory of the program
 Fortran variables
 Fortran IV numbers and letters, at least 6 characters
 Fortran 77 numbers and letters and “_”, at least 16 characters
 must start with a letter
 Up through 77, spaces in a Fortran program are ignored
 IVALUE and I VAL UE are the same
 using strange spacing, while acceptable, is bad practice
 Fortran variables are typed
 Fortran is case insensitive
 ivar is the same as IVAR or IvAr

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 Fortran Variable Typing
 All Fortran variables are typed
 INTEGER
 REAL
 DOUBLE PRECISION
 COMPLEX
 LOGICAL
 CHARACTER (77+)

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 Fortran Variable Typing
 A feature of Fortran – implicit typing
 when a variable appears that has not been declared previously it
is created (at compile time)
 it is assigned a type based on the first character of the name
– A-H,O-Z is type REAL
– I-N is type INTEGER
 a typo can cause the creation of a new variable – not an error
 Starting with 77 the implicit statement was added
 allowed changing the first letter assignments
 most 77 compilers include the implicit none statement that
requires that all variables be explicitly typed – prevents the typo
problem
 It is good practice to use implicit none

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 Fortran Variable Typing
 Change implicit typing so that A becomes an INTEGER type

PROGRAM TEST
IMPLICIT INTEGER (A)

 Disable implicit typing altogether

PROGRAM TEST
IMPLICIT NONE

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 Fortran Variable Typing
 In Fortran any variable can be explicitly typed
 In the declarations section enter a type identifier followed
by a list of variable names
INTEGER A,VALUE,ISTART
REAL INITIAL_VALUE

 The first letter implicit typing is over-ridden when explicit

typing is used
 A common Fortran error when using implicit typing is to
use a variable such as INITIAL_VALUE as if it contained
a real (floating point) value

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 Fortran Variable Typing
 The types presented earlier are the default types
 The range of both INTEGER and REAL are dependent
on the computer architecture
 one computer may have a 32 bit integer while another may use
16 bit as its default
 An attempt to deal with this lead to types such as
 REAL*8, INTEGER*4
 the number after the * indicates the number of bytes used
 most computers have 8 bit bytes
 not every architecture will have every combination
 not a practical problem in an Intel world
 but knowledge of the architecture of the system where a legacy
Fortran program was developed is needed to convert to Intel

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 Fortran Variable Typing
 Fortran 90+ uses a different method to deal with number
ranges that is architecture independent

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 Fortran Variable Typing
 The CHARACTER type was introduced in 77
 The * notation is used to specify the maximum number
of characters the variable can hold
CHARACTER*20 TITLE

 Before 77 the Hollerith notation was used

 common in older Fortran code, even in some 77 code
 normally placed characters into INTEGER arrays
 required knowledge of byte length of the variable
 portability problem
INTEGER*4 TITLE(5)
DATA TITLE/4Habcd,4Hefgh,…/

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 Fortran Arrays
 The array is the only data structure supported in 77 and
before
 An array is a linear allocation of memory
 An array can contain up to 7 dimensions
 Arrays are indexed starting a 1
INTEGER A
DIMENSION A(10
INTEGER B
DIMENSION B(10,10)
REAL C(10,10,10)

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 Fortran Arrays
 Fortran 77 introduced the ability to specify a lower bound
for an array dimension
INTEGER B
DIMENSION B(0:10,0:10)
 During execution of a Fortran program there is normally
no check made on array index bounds
 there may be a compiler option to enable these checks
 some bound checking code only checks the equivalent linear
index not each individual index

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 Fortran Arrays
 Fortran character (77)

CHARACTER*10 TITLE(4)

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 Fortran Variables and Subroutines
 All arguments to a Fortran subroutine are passed by
reference
 the subroutine receives the address of the variable
 any changes made by the subroutine are seen by the caller
 most other languages pass by value (the subroutine receives a
copy)
 passing an array as an argument with just the name will pass
the address of the first element
 On entry to a subroutine its local variables are not
guaranteed to have any known value
 the save statement introduced in 77 will ensure that a variable
will have on entry the value that it had on its last exit from the
subroutine

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 Fortran Common Blocks
 Normally variables in a Fortran program are local to the
unit in which they are declared
 variables may be made known to subroutines using the
arguments
 variables may be created in a common block
 Common blocks are shared memory
 each program unit that declares the common block has access
to it

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 Fortran Common Blocks
 Two types of common
 blank common – unnamed
 named common
 Most systems do not allow blank common to be
initialized
 Blank common can sometimes be used to allocate
unused memory (depends on OS)

COMMON A,B(10),C

COMMON/SET1/A,B(50,5),C

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 Fortran Common Blocks
 Problems
 each program unit that declares access to a common block
defines it’s own view
– type of each variable in the block
– size of each array in the block
 when views between units differ there can be problems – some
linkers will warn of size differences
PROGRAM TEST
COMMON/A/A,B(10),C
END
SUBROUTINE DOIT
COMMON/A/I,J(5),K(20)
END

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 Fortran Equivalence
 The EQUIVALENCE statement is used to alias a memory
location
 Usually will include a type change
 Also used to provide aliases for elements of an array
INTEGER A(100)
EQUIVALENCE (INCREMENT,A(4))
COMMON A(10000)
INTEGER IA(1)
EQUIVALENCE (IA(1),A(1))
 Takes advantage of no index checking

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 Fortran Parameter
 The PARAMETER statement is used to define constants
PARAMETER (MAX=20)
 A parameter can be used wherever a variable is
expected – but cannot be overwritten
 Can be used in declarations
PARAMETER (MAX=1000)
INTEGER A(MAX)

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 Fortran Literals
 Literals are constants that appear in a Fortran program
 Number
 integers - 1, -34
 real - 1.0, 4.3E10, 5.1D-5
 complex – (5.2,.8)
 Other
 logical - .true., .false.
 character – ‘title line’
 Obsolete but still lurking in code
 Hollerith – 4Habcd, 8Habcdef

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 Fortran Literals
INTEGER A
A = 34

REAL A(20)
A(1) = 31.4159E-1

ITERM = -10.3

COMPLEX Z
Z = (10,-10.5)
REAL_PART = REAL(Z)
AIMAG_PART = AIMAG(Z)
Z = CMPLX(REAL_PART * 2,AIMAG_PART)

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 Fortran Expressions
 Expressions are the heart of Fortran (Formula
Translator)
 There are two types of expressions
 numeric
– 2 * 3.14159 * RADIUS**2
– SIN(PI)
 logical
– IBOOL = .TRUE.
– I .EQ. 10 .AND. ISTOP
• note: LOGICAL ISTOP

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 Fortran Numerical Operators
 The numerical operators
 ** (exponentiation)
 */
 unary + -
 binary + -
 Parentheses are used to alter the order of evaluation
 For binary operators, if the types do not match an implicit
conversion is performed to the most general type
– integer -> real -> double precision
– anything -> complex

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 Fortran Numerical Operators
 WARNING: division of an integer by an integer will
produce a truncated result
– 5/2 => 2 not 2.5
– FLOAT(5)/2 => 2.5
 The type-conversion intrinsic functions can be used to
get the desired results

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 Intrinsic Functions
 Fortran includes an extensive set of built-in functions
 Fortran 66 has different names for these functions
depending on the return type and argument type
 Fortran 77 introduced generic names for intrinsic
functions

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 Type Conversion
 The intrinsic functions have two forms
– generic available only in 77 and above
– argument specific
 Conversion to integer
– INT(any) the generic version
– INT(real)
– IFIX(real)
– IDINT(double)
 Conversion to real
– REAL(any) the generic version
– FLOAT(integer)
– REAL(integer)
– SNGL(double)

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 Type Conversion
 Conversion to double
– DBLE(any) the generic version
 Conversion to complex
– COMPLX(any) the generic version
 Character to integer (77+ only)
– ICHAR(character)
 Integer to character (77+ only)
– CHAR(integer)

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 Truncation
 To integer part, return as real or double
– AINT(real or double) the generic version
– AINT(real)
– DINT(double)
 To nearest integer, return as real or double
– ANINT(real or double) the generic version
– ANINT(real)
– DNINT(double)
 To nearest integer, return as integer
– NINT(real or double) the generic version
– NINT(real)
– IDNINT(double)

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 Math Functions
 sine and cosine (radians)
– SIN(real or double) the generic version
– SIN(real)
– DSIN(double)
– CSIN(complex)
 exponential
– EXP(real or double) the generic version
– EXP(real)
– DEXP(double)
– CEXP(complex)
 natural logarithm
– LOG(real or double) the generic version
– ALOG(real)
– DLOG(double)
– CLOG(complex)

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 Math Functions
 tangent (radians)
– TAN(real or double) the generic version
– TAN(real)
– DSIN(double)
 square root
– SQRT(real or double) the generic version
– SQRT(real)
– DSQRT(double)
– CSQRT(complex)
 hyperbolic sine
– SINH(real or double) the generic version
– SINH(real)
– DSINH(double)

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 Math Functions
 there are also similar functions for
 arcsine, arccosine, arctangent (ASIN, ACOS, ATAN)
 hyperbolic sine, cosine, tangent (SINH, COSH, TANH)
 complex conjugate (CONJ)
 base10 logarithms (LOG10)

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 Fortran Statements
 The executable statements in Fortran
 assignment (=)
 branching (GOTO)
 comparison (IF)
 looping (DO)
 subroutine invocation (CALL)

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 Fortran Assignment
 The simple assignment statement stores the result of
computations into a variable

DIMENSION A(10,10)
…
A(I,10) = 2.0 * PI * R**2

INTEGER A

A = A + 1

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 Fortran Branching
 Fortran includes a GOTO statement
 In modern languages this is considered very bad
 its use was essential in Fortran 66 its predecessors
 Fortran 77 introduced control statements that lessened the need
for the GOTO
IF (I .EQ. 0) GO TO 100

A = 4.0 * AINIT
GOTO 200
100 B = 52.0
…
200 C = B * A

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 Fortran Branching
 The Fortran GOTO always branched to a Fortran
statement that contained a label in columns 1-5
 The labels varied from 1 to 99999
 Variations of the go to statement are
 assigned goto
 computed goto
 Spaces are ignored in Fortran code before 90
 GOTO and GO TO are equivalent
 Excessive use of the goto (required in 66 and before)
leads to difficult to understand code

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 Fortran Branching
 Assigned goto
ASSIGN 100 TO TARGET
…
GOTO TARGET
…
100 CONTINUE

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 Fortran Branching
 Computed goto
 Operates much like a case or switch statement in other
languages
GOTO (100,200,300,400),IGO
…
100 CONTINUE
…
GOTO 500
200 CONTINUE
…
GOTO 500
…
500 CONTINUE
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 Fortran Continue
 The CONTINUE statement is a do-nothing statement and
is frequently used as a marker for labels
 It is used most frequently with DO loops

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 Fortran IF
 The IF statement is used to perform logical decisions
 The oldest form is the 3-way if (also called arithmetic if)
 The logical if appeared in Fortran IV/66
 The more modern if-then-else appeared in Fortran 77

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 Fortran 3-way If
 The 3-way if statement tested a numerical value against
zero
 It branched to one of three labels depending on the
result
IF (RADIUS) 10,20,30
10 CONTINUE
IF (ABS(RADIUS-EPS)) 10,10,20
…
10 CONTINUE
GOTO 100
…
20 CONTINUE
GOTO 100
…
20 CONTINUE
GOTO 100
…
30 CONTINUE
GOTO 100
…
100 CONTINUE
GOTO 100
100 CONTINUE

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 Fortran Logical If
 The logical if statement performed a test using the
logical operators
 .EQ., .NE., .LT., .LE., .GT., .GE.
 .AND., .OR., .NOT.
 If result is true then a single statement is executed
IF (ISTART .EQ. 50) GOTO 100
…
100 CONTINUE
IF (IMODE .EQ. 2) A = SQRT(CVALUE)
…

LOGICAL QUICK
QUICK = .TRUE.
IF (QUICK) STEP=0.5
IF (.NOT. QUICK) STEP = 0.01

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 Fortran Logical If
LOGICAL QUICK
QUICK = .TRUE.
IF (QUICK) STEP=0.5
IF (.NOT. QUICK) STEP = 0.01
…
IF (QUICK .AND. (ABS(XVALUE – EPS) .LT. 0.005)) GOTO 1000

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 Fortran Modern If
 Fortran 77 introduced the modern if statement (so-called
structured programming)
 The test operated the same as the logical if
 Greatly reduced the need for using the goto statement
 Includes
 then clause
 else clause
 else if clause

AE6382
 Fortran Modern If
 This form eliminates the goto statements from the
previous example
LOGICAL QUICK
QUICK = .TRUE.
IF (QUICK) THEN
STEP=0.5
ELSE
STEP = 0.01
ENDIF
…
IF (QUICK .AND. (ABS(XVALUE – EPS) .LT. 0.005)) THEN
…
END IF

AE6382
 Fortran Modern If
 This form reduces the need for the computed goto
IF (MODE .EQ. 0) THEN
…
ELSE IF (MODE .EQ. 1) THEN
…
ELSEIF (MODE .EQ. 2) THEN
…
ELSE
…
END IF

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 Fortran Looping
 The DO statement is the mechanism for looping in
Fortran
 The do loop is the only “official” looping mechanism in
Fortran through 77
DO 100 I=1,10,2
…
100 CONTINUE
 Here I is the control variable
 it is normally an integer but can be real
 1 is the start value
 10 is the end value
 2 is the increment value
 everything to the 100 label is part of the loop

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 Fortran Looping
 The labeled statement can be any statement not just
continue
 Loop may be nested
 nested loops can share the same label – very bad form
DO 100 I=1,10,2
DO 100 J=1,5,1
…
100 A(I,J) = VALUE

DO 200 I=1,10,2
DO 100 J=1,5,1
…
A(I,J) = VALUE
100 CONTINUE
200 CONTINUE

AE6382
 Fortran Looping
 Before Fortran 77 a do loop would always execute at
least once – despite the parameters
DO 100 I=10,1,2
…
100 CONTINUE
 The increment may be negative, if not specified it is
assumed to be 1

AE6382
 Fortran Looping
 WARNING: Through Fortran 77 there is an extended do
loop
 can jump out of loop to code outside the loop
 that code can jump back into the loop
 valid as long as code does not modify the control variable
 no need to ever use it – use a subroutine instead
DO 100 I=1,100 DO 100 I=1,100
… …
GOTO 1000 CALL XYZ
… …
99 CONTINUE 100 CONTINUE
… …
100 CONTINUE
…
1000 CONTINUE
…
GOTO 99
AE6382
 Fortran Looping
 Fortran 77 introduced a form of the do loop that does not
require labels
DO I=1,100 DO I=1,100
… DO J=1,50
ENDDO A(I,J) = I*J
END DO
ENDDO

 The indented spacing shown is not required

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 Fortran Looping
 A variant of Fortran 77 known as MIL-STD 1753
introduced a new loop construct – the while loop
 While not part of the Fortran standard it is available in
almost all Fortran 77 compilers
DO WHILE (I .LT. 1000)
…
ENDDO

 This form is an infinite loop and would require an

additional test in the loop to exit
DO WHILE (.TRUE.)
…
END DO

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 Fortran Looping
 Finally, there is a form of the do loop called the implied
do loop
 It is used on READ, WRITE, and DATA statements
READ(5,8000) (A(I),I=1,10)

WRITE(6,8000) ((A(I,J),I=1,10),J=1,10)

DATA ((IX(I,J),I=1,10),J=1,10)/1,2,3…/

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 Fortran Subroutine Invocation
 There are two methods by which a sub program can be
called in Fortran
 use the CALL statement for subroutines
 as part of a numerical expression for a function

CALL XX(A,B,C) VALUE = 4.3 * ROOT(X)

… …
SUBROUTINE XX(X,Y,Z) REAL FUNCTION ROOT(A)
… …
END END

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 Fortran Subroutine Invocation
 The variables on the invocation are the actual arguments
 The variables in the declaration are the formal
arguments
 More about sub programs will be covered later

AE6382
 Miscellaneous Statements
 There are several other Fortran statements
 RETURN will cause a sub program to return to the caller at that
point – the END statement contains an implied RETURN
 a number on a RETURN statement indicates that an alternate
return be taken
 STOP will cause a program to terminate immediately – a
number may be included to indicate where the stop occurred,
STOP 2
 PAUSE will cause the program to stop with a short message –
the message is the number on the statement, PAUSE 5

AE6382
 Fortran I/O Statements
 Fortran contains an extensive input/output capability
 The relevant statements are
 READ
 WRITE
 OPEN
 CLOSE
 INQUIRE
 REWIND
 BACKSPACE
 ENDFILE
 FORMAT
 Fortran I/O is based on the concept of a unit number
 5 is generally input – stdin on Unix
 6 is usually output – stdout on Unix
 other unit numbers can be created as needed

AE6382
 Fortran I/O Statements
 Management of unit numbers was not specified in any
system independent way before Fortran 77
 older programs will just use a unit without any declaration – the
linkage to a file was performed by the OS
 the following usage is common
PROGRAM MAIN(INPUT,OUTPUT,TAPE5=INPUT,TAPE6=OUTPUT)

 this is non-standard and can only be used as a guide when

converting Fortran program to a modern OS (Linux, Unix, or
Windows)

AE6382
 Fortran I/O Statements
 There are two types of I/O in Fortran
 formatted
 unformatted or binary
 There are two modes of operation
 sequential
 random
 Formatted I/O uses a format statement to prepare the
data for output or interpret for input
 Unformatted I/O does not use a format statement
 the form of the data is generally system dependent
 usually faster and is generally used to store intermediate results

AE6382
 Fortran I/O Statements
 Unformatted I/O does not use a format statement

WRITE(9) A,B,C,D,E

 The reverse operation is

READ(9) A,B,C,D,E

AE6382
 Fortran I/O Statements
 The FORMAT statement is the heart of the Fortran
formatted I/O system
 The format statement instructs the computer on the
details of both input and output
 size of the field to use for the value
 number of decimal places
 The format is identified by a statement label
WRITE(6,9000) A,B,C,D,E
9000 FORMAT(1X,4F8.5,2x,E14.6,//)
 A format can be used any number of times
 The label number must not conflict with goto labels

AE6382
 Fortran I/O Statements
 The Fortran I/O statements have a common form with a
common set of parameters
stmt(UNIT=n,FMT=label,IOSTAT=int-variable,ERR=label,END=label) list

 The UNIT and FMT keywords can be omitted, in which

case the unit and format are the first two parameters
stmt(n,label,IOSTAT=int-variable,ERR=label,END=label) list

 The other parameters are all optional

 The list is the list of variables or expressions to be
converted to or from
 Fortran IV/66 only uses a unit number and a format
label, some implementations allow END
stmt(n,label) list

AE6382
 Fortran I/O Statements
 The UNIT keyword is used to specify the device on
which to perform the I/O
 the keyword may be omitted – the unit must be the first
parameter
 The FMT keyword is used to specify a format label that
will be used to control the I/O
 the keyword may be omitted – the format label must be the
second parameter
 an unformatted I/O operation does not use a format
 a character string may be used instead (77 only)
 The NML keyword is used to specify a namelist group
 NML and FMT are mutually exclusive

AE6382
 Fortran I/O Statements
 The IOSTAT keyword is used to specify an integer variable that will,
upon completion, contain a value that indicates how the I/O
completed
 = 0 – there was no error or EOF condition, OK
 > 0 – the value is the error that occurred, this is implementation
dependent
 < 0 – and EOF, end of file, was encountered
 The ERR keyword is used to specify a statement label that will be
jumped to if an error occurs
 of specified, IOSTAT will contain the error code
 The END keyword is used to specify a statement label that will be
jumped to if an EOF condition exists
 The END and ERR keywords are not required, the programmer can
just test the value of IOSTAT
 If IOSTAT or the END/ERR keywords are not used the Fortran
library will invoke a standard error response – usually terminate the
program
AE6382
 Fortran I/O Statements
READ(5,9000) A,B,C,D,E
9000 FORMAT(1X,4F8.5,2x,E14.6,//)

READ(UNIT=5,FMT=9000,ERR=100) A,B,C,D,E
…
C come here on end of file
100 CONTINUE
…
9000 FORMAT(1X,4F8.5,2x,E14.6,//)

READ(5,’(1X,4F8.5,2x,E14.6,//)’,IOSTAT=IERR) A,B,C,D,E
IF (IERR) 100, 200, 300
C 100 – EOF, 200 – OK, 300 – an error

AE6382
 Fortran I/O List
 The I/O list is the list of variables or expressions that are
to be processed by an I/O statement
 Formatted I/O will perform conversions between internal
binary format and external character format
 Unformatted I/O does not conversion
 There are three forms of formatted I/O
 the standard form
 list directed
 namelist directed

AE6382
 Fortran Formatted I/O
 The standard form
 requires the use of a format statement that is used to control the
conversion process
 normally used for bulk input or output
 List directed, also called free format
 performs the conversion based on the type of the next variable
in the I/O list
 the format is specified as * or FMT=*
 frequently used for user typed input or debugging statements
 data separated by blanks or commas
 Namelist directed
 conversion is controlled by variable type
 data is entered by name

AE6382
 Fortran I/O Statements
READ(6,*) A,B,I
--- the input below
4.5 17 35

WRITE(6,*) ‘The value of a=‘,A

NAMELIST /CONTROL/ A,B,TITLE

INTEGER A
CHARACTER*80 TITLE
READ(5,NML=CONTROL)
--- the input below
&CONTROL
TITLE=‘A title line’
A=5
B=3.14
/
AE6382
 Fortran I/O List
 The I/O list part of the statement defines the variables to
be used
 a READ statement must contain only variables
 a WRITE statement can contain constants and expressions in
addition to variables
 implied do-loops are permitted
 if an array variable is included with any indexing supplied then
an implied do-loop is implied
– iterates through the entire array, left-most indices varying most
rapidly
REAL A(5,5)
READ(5,*) A
--- same as
READ(5,*) ((A(I,J),I=1,5),J=1,5)

AE6382
 FORMAT Statement
 Very powerful and versatile but can be quite tedious to
master and may vary between dialects
 Designed for use with line printers (not screens)
 Only infrequently used for input unless data format is
clearly defined and consistently applied
 General:
 Syntax: label_no FORMAT(format-specifiers)
 Specifies format to be used in READ or WRITE statement that
references this label_no.
 format_specifiers are quite extensive and complex to master.
 each format specifier is separated by a comma.

AE6382
 Format Specifiers
 X format code
 Syntax: nX
 Specifies n spaces to be included at this point
 I format code
 Syntax: Iw
 Specifies format for an integer using a field width of w spaces. If
integer value exceeds this space, output will consist of ****
 F format code
 Syntax: Fw.d
 Specifies format for a REAL number using a field width of w
spaces and printing d digits to the right of the decimal point.
 A format code
 Syntax: A or Aw
 Specifies format for a CHARACTER using a field width equal to
the number of characters, or using exactly w spaces (padded
with blanks to the right if characters are less than w. AE6382
 Format Specifiers – cont’d
 T format code
 Syntax: Tn
 Skip (tab) to column number n
 Literal format code
 Syntax: ‘quoted_string’
 Print the quoted string in the output (not used in input)
 L format code
 Syntax: Lw
 Print value of logical variable as T or F, right-justified in field of
width, w.

AE6382
 Format Specifiers – cont’d
 BN format code
 Syntax: BN
 Ignore embedded blanks in a numeric field
 BZ format code
 Syntax: BZ
 Treat embedded blanks in a numeric field as zero

AE6382
 Format Specifiers – cont’d
 The BN and BZ codes are Fortran 77
 Before Fortran 77 blanks were treated as zero
8000 FORMAT(BN,I10)
|----+----o----+----o----+----o----+----|
-1234
result: -1234

8000 FORMAT(BZ,I10)
|----+----o----+----o----+----o----+----|
-1234
result: -1234000

 Starting with Fortran 77 BN is the default

 Also set globally using OPEN(BLANK=NULL

AE6382
 Format Specifiers – cont’d
 E format code
 Syntax: Ew.d
 Print value of REAL variable using “scientific notation” with a
mantissa of d digits and a total field width of w.
 Ex:
E14.5 produces for the REAL value -1.23456789e+4:
|----+----o----+----o----+----o----+----|
-0.12345E+05

 You must leave room for sign, leading 0,decimal point, E, sign,
and 2 digits for exponent (typically at least 7 spaces)
 If specified width is too small, mantissa precision, d, will be
reduced unless d<1 in which case *** will be output.
 Using nP prefix will shift mantissa digit right by n and reduce
exponent by –n. Ex; 1PE14.5 above yields:
|----+----o----+----o----+----o----+----|
-1.23456E+04

AE6382
 Format Specifiers – cont’d
 G format code
 Syntax: Gw.d
 Print value of REAL variable using Fw.d format unless value is
too large or too small, in which case use Ew.d format.
 Ex:
G14.5 produces for the REAL value -1.23456789e+4:
|----+----o----+----o----+----o----+----|
-12345.67890

 When the number gets too big (or too small) for F, it is switched
to an E format. Ex: the value -1.23456789e-18 becomes:
|----+----o----+----o----+----o----+----|
-0.1234567E-19

 Note: the usefulness is more apparent when smaller field widths

(w values) are specified for more compact output.

AE6382
 Other FORMAT Features
 Forward slash, /
 Used to cause a new line to be started
 Does not need to be separated by commas
 Repeat factor
 Format specifiers may be repeated by prepending a number to
specify the repeat factor
 Repeat groups are enclosed in ( )
 Ex: 4F12.5 – same as F12.5,F12.5,F12.5,F12.5
 Carriage control
 Line printers interpret the first character of each line as a
carriage control command and it is not printed.
– 1 means start new page,
– _(blank) means begin a new line,
– + means over print current line
 Common use: 1000 FORMAT(1X,4F12.4)

AE6382
 Other I/O Features
 The Fortran 77 method for associating a file with a unit is
the OPEN statement
OPEN(UNIT=7,STATUS=‘OLD’,FORM=‘UNFORMATTED’,FILE=‘DATA1.TXT’)

 There is an extensive list of keywords that control

OPEN, common keywords are
 ACCESS – SEQUENTIAL | DIRECT
 ACTION – READ | WRITE | READWRITE
 BLANK – NULL | ZERO
 ERR – label
 FILE – filename
 FORM – FORMATTED | UNFORMATTED
 IOSTAT – integer variable
 STATUS – OLD | NEW | SCRATCH | REPLACE | UNKNOWN
 UNIT – the unit number

AE6382
 Other I/O Features
 ACCESS
 SEQUENTIAL – process each record in order (default for formatted io)
 DIRECT – access the file randomly (access record by number REC=)
 BLANK – determines how blanks are processed by a format
 NULL – blanks are ignored – all blank field is zero
 ZERO – blanks are treated as zeros
 al BZ and BN format specifiers can be used
 STATUS
 OLD – file must currently exist
 NEW – file cannot currently exist, it is created
 SCRATCH – an unnamed file that is created then destroyed on close
 REPLACE – if file exists then delete and re-create before opening
 UNKNOWN – if file does not exist create it otherwise open it

AE6382
 Other I/O Features
 The CLOSE statement will close a unit
 Keywords include
 UNIT – unit to close
 STATUS – KEEP | DELETE
 ERR – label
 IOSTAT – integer variable

CLOSE(7)

CLOSE(7,STATUS=‘DELETE’)

AE6382
 Other I/O Features
 The BACKSPACE statement will position a sequential
record back to the beginning of the previous record
 re-read a line
 The ENDFILE statement will write an end of file marker
then position a sequential file after it
 most useful with magnetic tape files
 The INQUIRE statement will retrieve information about a
file or logical unit
 The REWIND statement will position a sequential file
back to the beginning of the file

AE6382
 Other I/O Features
 A variation of the READ and WRITE statements is the
internal read and write (77 only)
 they are identical to normal read/write statements except that
the UNIT is a CHARACTER variable
 earlier implementations of Fortran had statements such as
ENCODE (internal write) and DECODE (internal read)

CHARACTER*80 IMAGE
READ(IMAGE,9000) A,B
9000 FORMAT(2F8.2)

CHARACTER*80 IMAGE
WRITE(IMAGE,’(3E12.5)’) A,B,C

AE6382
 Other I/O Features
 A variation of the READ and WRITE statements is the
internal read and write (77 only)
 they are identical to normal read/write statements except that
the UNIT is a CHARACTER variable
 earlier implementations of Fortran had statements such as
ENCODE (internal write) and DECODE (internal read)

CHARACTER*80 IMAGE
READ(IMAGE,9000) A,B
9000 FORMAT(2F8.2)

CHARACTER*80 IMAGE
WRITE(IMAGE,’(3E12.5)’) A,B,C

AE6382
 Sub Programs
 There are two types of Fortran sub-programs
 the subroutine
 the function
 Functions return a value in an expression
 Subroutines are called as a stand-alone statement
 Sub-programs communicate with the caller using
arguments
 Common blocks are also used
 reduce the flexibility of the routine
 faster, lower overhead

AE6382
 Sub Programs
 When a sub-program is declared, formal or dummy
arguments are specified
SUBROUTINE SUB1(A,B,I,J)
REAL J
DIMENSION A(5,5)
INTEGER B

 Functions return a value

REAL FUNCTION SINE(ANGLE)

…
SINE = …
RETURN
END

AE6382
 Sub Programs
 The formal arguments of a sub-program define the
variables within that sub-program
 When the sub-program is called, the variables used in
the call are the actual arguments
 The actual arguments are expected to match the formal
arguments
 Fortran before 90 does not check type
 For a function, the return value is placed in a variable of
the same name before return

AE6382
 Sub Programs
 Arguments in Fortran are passed by reference
 the address of the memory location is given to the sub-program
 changes made to the formal variable are reflected in the actual variable
 most other computer languages pass by value where a copy is made for
use by the sub-program
 For array variables
 supplying only the name will pass the address of the start of the array
 with indices supplied, the address of that element is passed
 missing indices are assumed to be 1

DIMENSION A(5,5)
SUBROUTINE SUB(X,Y)
CALL SUB(A,A(3,2)) DIMENSION X(5,5)
REAL Y
…
END

AE6382
 Sub Programs
 When arrays are used
 the shape of the array must match in both the caller and the
called units
 the shape is the number of dimensions and extent of each
dimension, 5x5
 a mis-match will generally result in incorrect calculations and
results

DIMENSION A(5,5) SUBROUTINE SUB(X)

DIMENSION X(5,5)
CALL SUB(A) …
END

AE6382
 Sub Programs
 A common sight for formal array declarations is the use
of 1 as a dimension extent
 This works only for the right-most index
 This works because the mapping from multi-dimensional
to one-dimensional form
DIMENSION A(5,5) SUBROUTINE SUB(X)
DIMENSION X(5,1)
CALL SUB(A) …
END

AE6382
 Array Storage
 Arrays in Fortran are stored in column major order
 C, C++, … store arrays in row major order, important to know if
calling sub-programs written in the other language
 The array is allocated as a series of columns
 The left-most subscript varies fastest

For an array dimensioned as A(M,N). The mapping for element A(I,J) to the equivalent one-
dimensional array is,
INDEX = (I - 1) * (J - 1)*M

AE6382
 Array Storage
program order
implicit none
integer i,j
integer a(5,5), b(25)
equivalence (a(1,1),b(1))
do i=1,5
do j=1,5
a(i,j) = i*100 + j
enddo
a(i,j):
enddo
0101 0102 0103 0104 0105
write(6,9000) ((a(i,j),j=1,5),i=1,5)
0201 0202 0203 0204 0205
write(6,9010) b
0301 0302 0303 0304 0305
write(6,9020) a
0401 0402 0403 0404 0405
9000 format(/,'a(i,j): ',/,(5(1x,i4.4)))
0501 0502 0503 0504 0505
9010 format(/,'b:',/,(15(1x,i4.4)))
9020 format(/,'a:',/,(5(1x,i4.4)))
b:
end
0101 0201 0301 0401 0501 0102 0202 0302 0402 0502 0103 0203 0303 0403 0503
0104 0204 0304 0404 0504 0105 0205 0305 0405 0505

a:
0101 0201 0301 0401 0501
0102 0202 0302 0402 0502
0103 0203 0303 0403 0503
0104 0204 0304 0404 0504
0105 0205 0305 0405 0505

AE6382
 Sub Programs
 Arguments can be used to define the shape of the array
INTEGER A(5,5)
…
CALL SUB(A,5,5)
…
END
SUBROUTINE SUB(J,IROW,ICOL)
DIMENSION J(IROW,ICOL)
…
END

 This only works for formal arguments

 Frequently used with the PARAMETER statement

AE6382
 Sub Programs
program main_add c
implicit none c read the b matrix (using new-style do loop)
c do i=1,m
c define the largest matrix allowed read(5,8010) (b(i,j),j=1,n)
integer MAXROW,MAXCOL write(6,*)i,(b(i,j),j=1,n)
parameter (MAXROW=9,MAXCOL=9) enddo
c c
c allocate memory for the matricies c call the subroutine to add the matrices,
result in c
real a(MAXROW,MAXCOL)
call add(a,b,c,MAXROW,m,MAXCOL,n)
real b,c
c
dimension b(MAXROW,MAXCOL),c(MAXROW,MAXCOL)
c write the result (use dual implied do loops)
c
write(6,*)'Output 1'
c local memory
write(6,9000) ((c(i,j),j=1,n),i=1,m)
integer i,j,m,n
c
character*80 line
c write the result (use explicit do loop for
c
rows)
c read the first line of the file, the title
c (use implied do loop for
read(5,'(a80)') line columns)
c write(6,*) 'Output 2'
c read the size of the matrices to be input do 20 i=1,m
read(5,*) m,n write(6,9000) (c(i,j),j=1,n)
write(6,*) 'M=',m,', N=',n 20 continue
c c
c read the a matrix (using old-style do loop) c formats for input and output
do 10 i=1,m 8000 format(5f10.2)
read(5,8000) (a(i,j),j=1,n) 8010 format(bz,5f10.2)
write(6,*)i,(a(i,j),j=1,n) 9000 format(10f14.4)
10 continue end

AE6382
 Sub Programs
c c local variables
c define the subroutine to perform the integer i,j
matrix addition
c
c this subroutine takes 3 matricies a,b,c
c loop over each element and add
c c = a + c (matrix addition)
do i=1,m
c a, b, and c are declared in the calling
do j=1,n
program to have
c(i,j)=a(i,j)+b(i,j)
c dimension (mmax,nmax) (all the same)
enddo
c the actual matrix contained is (m,n)
enddo
c
return
subroutine add(a,b,c,mmax,m,nmax,n)
end
implicit none
c
c declare type of other arguments
integer mmax,m,nmax,n
c
c "dynamic" dimensioning of the matrices
real a(mmax,nmax)
real b(mmax,nmax)
c
c the right-most dimension can always be
specified as 1
c see the 1-d conversion formula as to
why
c not good practice but common in code
real c(mmax,1)

AE6382
 Sub Programs
 A program using common blocks to communicate
 The INCLUDE statement is used to ensure that all the
parts of the program use the same definitions
 A makefile is shown
 it checks the current state of all the source files
 if common.f is changed it will ensure that the other files that
reference it are re-compile to reflect changes
 sample is the first target and therefore the default

AE6382
 Sub Programs
PART1.F
program sample
include 'common.f‘
write(*,*) 'a=',a,', b=',b,', c=',c COMMON.F

call modify common/test/a,b,c

write(*,*) 'a=',a,', b=',b,', c=',c integer a,b,c

end

PART2.F
block data
include 'common.f‘
data a,b,c/7,42,70/
end

PART3.F
subroutine modify MAKEFILE

include 'common.f‘ sample: part1.o part2.o part3.o

integer total g77 -o sample part1.o part2.o part3.o

total = a + b + c part1.o: part1.f common.f

write(*,*) "Total=",total g77 -c part1.f

a = a / 2 part2.o: part2.f common.f

b = b / 2 g77 -c part2.f

c = c / 2 part3.o: part3.f common.f

return g77 -c part3.f

end

AE6382
 Statement Functions
 The statement function is a special case of the function
 It is defined and used in the calling program

…
F(X,Y) = X**2 + Y
…
A = 3.245 * F(4.3,B) - C
…
END

 It is a macro for a simple computation

 It is defined in the declarations
 It has been removed as of Fortran 95

AE6382
 Fortran Books
 There are some freely downloadable Fortran 77 books
 Professional Programmer’s Guide to Fortran 77
 http://www.star.le.ac.uk/~cgp/fortran.html
 PDF, HTML, and TeX versions are available
 also on tsquare under resources
 Interactive Fortran 77: A Hands On Approach
 http://www.kcl.ac.uk/kis/support/cc/fortran/f77book.pdf
 can be downloaded from above

AE6382
 Not Fortran
#include <stdio.h>
main(t,_,a)
char *a;
{
return!0<t?t<3?main(-79,-13,a+main(-87,1-_,main(-86,0,a+1)+a)):
1,t<_?main(t+1,_,a):3,main(-94,-27+t,a)&&t==2?_<13?
main(2,_+1,"%s %d %d\n"):9:16:t<0?t<-72?main(_,t,
"@n'+,#'/*{}w+/w#cdnr/+,{}r/*de}+,/*{*+,/w{%+,/w#q#n+,/#{l+,/n{n+,/+#n+,/#\
;#q#n+,/+k#;*+,/'r :'d*'3,}{w+K w'K:'+}e#';dq#'l \
q#'+d'K#!/+k#;q#'r}eKK#}w'r}eKK{nl]'/#;#q#n'){)#}w'){){nl]'/+#n';d}rw' i;# \
){nl]!/n{n#'; r{#w'r nc{nl]'/#{l,+'K {rw' iK{;[{nl]'/w#q#n'wk nw' \
iwk{KK{nl]!/w{%'l##w#' i; :{nl]'/*{q#'ld;r'}{nlwb!/*de}'c \
;;{nl'-{}rw]'/+,}##'*}#nc,',#nw]'/+kd'+e}+;#'rdq#w! nr'/ ') }+}{rl#'{n' ')# \
}'+}##(!!/")
:t<-50?_==*a?putchar(31[a]):main(-65,_,a+1):main((*a=='/')+t,_,a+1)
:0<t?main(2,2,"%s"):*a=='/'||main(0,main(-61,*a,
"!ek;dc i@bK'(q)-[w]*%n+r3#l,{}:\nuwloca-O;m .vpbks,fxntdCeghiry"),a+1);
}

AE6382
AE6382