Qualitative vs.

Quantitative research
methods
PART I – THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH METHODS

PART II – EVALUATION OF QUALITATIVE METHODS INCLUDING CONCEPTS

LIKE CREDIBILITY, RESEARCHER BIAS, GERNERALIZATION, TRIANGULATION
AND REFLEXIVITY.

PART III – SAMPLING METHODS, PURPOSIVE SAMPLING AND SNOWBALL

SAMPLING

PART IV – ETHICS
PART I – THE DISTINCTION
BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
METHODS
Qualitative vs. Quantitative
research methods:
 Qualitative research takes place in the real world, as
opposed to the laboratory, and deals with how people
give meaning to their own experience.
 Then it is followed by an attempt to interpret the
behaviour and the meanings that people have given to
their experience.
 The objective of qualitative research is to describe and
possibly explain events and experiences.
Qualitative research strategies:
These often involve face-
to-face interactions
beteen researcher and
participant

Step 1 The researchers need to

be flexible and sensitive
Observations to the needs of the
social context within
Interviews which the data is
obtained.
Cases studies
The data is then
analysed and
Step 2 interpreted. To look for
themes is more common
than trying to confirm a
hypothesis.
Qualitative – words and
anlysis
Qualitative – numbers-
easy to summarize and
use in statistics. Meant Gathered
for generalization through direct
beyond the sample from interaction with
which the data is drawn. participants.
Open-ended and
flexible ”rich
data”
 When dealing with
qualitative research – it is
imperative to be able to
tolerate a degree of
uncertainty.
According to qualitative
research:
”Researchers can only come to understand the social world
through participants’ interpretations – interpretative
approach.
Reality is diverse and multifaceted. The goal is to get a
picture of this reality. To measure means to reduce it – and
therefore lose meaning.
  Quantitative methods, such
as the experiment, have
been used partly in order
to maintain the appearance

Historical of psychology as a scientific

discipline with valid

flashback: 
knowledge claims.
During the 20th century
there was a shift away
from seeing quantitative
methods as the only valid
way of gaining data – but
also a realization that both
methods are needed.
What decides whether to use
qualitative vs. Quantitative data?

 Purpose of research
 Characteristics of participants
 Researchers’ beliefs about the nature of knowledge and
how it can be aquired (see next slide)
The nature of knowledge – Ritchie and
Lewis questions based on the
epistenological discussion (how can
we
1.
know abou tthe world)
What is the relationship between the researcher and the
researched? Can the researcher be objective. Can the
researched ever behave naturally. No? Well, then
reflexibility is needed.
2. What can be held as truth? Accurate measures (natural
sciences) or by being supported by something else (social
sciences)
3. How is knowledge gathered? Deductive (cause and effect,
generalization and prediction) vs. Inductive (collected
evidence used to reach a conclusion – focus: to understand
the process).
Rolfe:

Means that the distinction between qualitative and

quantitave research is a textbook creation and that there
is no unified qualitative paradigm.
In fact, he claims, they are not separated.
 Exercise 1: try to fill in what qualitative research has in
common opposed to quantitative methods based on what we
have covered so far:

Quantitative Qualitative methods

methods assume: assume:

• That variables can be

identified (and
operationalised)
• That The relationship
between variables can
measured by statistics.
• Realibility and
objectiveness is seen as
highly important (and
possible) – therefore
controlled
environments (like
labs) are preferred.
• Aim: to infer a cause-
effect relationship and
to be able to
generalize from the
study.
• Eg. experiments and
correlational studies.
PART II EVALUATION OF
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
METHODS
Evaluation: strengths

 Provide rich data – that is, in-depth descriptions of

individual experiences.
 Particularly useful for investigating complex and
sensitive issues.
 Explain phenomena – that is, go beyond mere
observation to understand what lies behind them (eg.
why do people become homeless?)
 Generate new ideas and theories to explain and
overcome problems.
 People are studied in their own environment, which
increases credibility.
Evaluation: limitations

 Can be very time-consuming and generate a huge

amount of data.
 Data analysis can be difficult because of the amount of
data and no clear strategy for analysis.
 Interpretation of data may be subjective (but reflexivity
can help to minimize this)
Is it possible to generalize
from qualitative data?
This is often the aim of research, but not always so for qualitative
research.
Representative generalization – can the findings be applied to
populations outside the population of the study? Samples are
often small and not selected for being statistically representative
so this makes generalization difficult. However, if evidence from
other studies confirms the findings (confirmability through eg.
triangulation) it is argued that generalization is possible
(Hammersley, 1992)
Inferential generalizability – same thing but with the difference
that it is the setting of the research that is to be generalized to
other settings. Transferability. Depends on the depth of the
description of the context – and this may allow for inferences to
be made – but needs to be supported or disproved by further
evidence (e.g. transferability check through triangulation)
Theoretical generalizability – if the theoretical concepts can be
used to open up new fields and develop further theory.
Criteria for judging quantitative
and qualitative research
Credibility Internal validity
”Trustworthyness” How believable are the research conclusions? Conclusions and interpretations are

Breadth and deapth is gathered. correct as variables are well defined and
measures well controlled.

Transferability Generalizability
The context is well described as it is unlikely that The research conclusions can be applied to

it won’t have an impact on the findings. Different samples as the research context is

controlled enough.

Dependability Reliability
Data obtained cannot be expected to be the same Repeated use of the instrument provide stable

Dependability means therefore that the researcher has measurements and researchers using them

Described all factors that might have influenced the data. Find similar results

Confirmability Objectivity
Sujectivity is not only unavoidable; it is valued. Therefore

researchers should give details of procedures and attempt As many sources of bias from opinion are

To find examples that contradict the findings. Eliminated from the research process.
 A study is trustworthy
if, and only if, the
reader of the reseach
report judge it to be so”
(Rolfe, 2006)
Something on triangulation
As a way to increase credibility, but also check
transferability, dependability and confirmability
triangulation is often used.

Triangulation = a cross-checking of information and

conclusions in research, brought about by the use of
multiple procedures or sources. If there is agreement
between these, there is support of the interpretation of
data.

Using triangulation does not mean you get a certain

truth, but you get closer to it – reflexivity is still
necessary.
Example of triangulation
techniques:
 Method triangulation. Comparing data that come from
the use of different methods. These could be both
quantitative and qualitative. Eg. first using a
questionaire to ask about eating habits in a school, and
then conduct focus group interviews afterwards.
 Researcher triangulation – involves using different
people as researchers. This increased the confirmability
and credibility of conclusions. Without this data
collection and conclusions might be affected by
researcher bias.
Other triangulation thechniques include data triangulation
and theory triangulation.
Reflexivity Examiner’s hint: to answer a
question about the value of
reflexivity in qualitative research,
you should make reference to the
different opportunities for
reflexibility provided by
interviews, case studies and
observations.

Refers to the researcher’s need to constantly be aware of

how and why they are conducting the research, and to
recognize at what points their own beliefs and opinions
might have influenced data collection or analysis.

To undergo an interview with collegues is a way to expose

possible bias.
EFFECTS OF PARTICIPANT
EXPECTATIONS AND RESEARCHER BIAS

Participant expectations – the participants’ ideas of the researcher and the

research which can affect the trustworthiness of the data. Pleasing the
experiment (or the screw you effect).
Researcher bias – the researcher does not pay enough attention to the
participants. This leads to the result that it is the researcher’s own beliefs
that determine the research effect.
Can be checked through interviews, credibility checks and reflexivity.
PART III SAMPLING
METHODS
Sampling methods Sampling methods
in qualitative
research differs
from those used in
quantitative
research.

 The sampling numbers are generally smaller thani n quantitative research.

 To get random, representative samples from target population is seldom
possible (or the aim) of qualitative research. It is not intended to be
statistically representative.
 Instead, a sample is chosen because it represents important
characteristics of a population – characteristics that are the main concern
in evaluation of research.
Examples of sampling in
qualitative research
 Purposive sampling – the participatns are chosen on the
basis of particular characteristics that will help the
researcher to explore the research topic. Eg. specific
experiences, social roles etc. It may be important that
there is a diversity – but this is not necessary nor at
times possible. Problem – the sample might be biased
but this is thought to be lessened if the criterias on
which participants were chosen are clearly
documented.
Snowball sampling
The researcher simply
asks participants in the
study if they know any
other potential
participants.
+ time and cost efficient.
+ can be used to get hold
hidden populations
- Will most probably lead
to biased samples.
- Ethics: confidentiality
concerns.

Convenience samples can also be

used.
Exercise II
You have been asked to conduct a qualitative research
study on football fans’ perception of their favourite team.

 What sampling method would be appropriate? Why?

 Could another sampling method be considered? Why?
 What should you consider overall when selecting your sample?
PART IV ETHICS
Ethics

In large these are the same as in quantitative research

(informed consent, protection from harm, respect for the
participants’ integrity and privacy and right to withdraw).
Special here is to be open to problems linked to the
private nature often researched, that the researcher
might get personally involved and lose objectivity.
Specifically in case studies – anonymity issues (case study
with covert observation – no consentform or right to
withdraw – problematic).
Learning outcomes – answer
these:
 Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data.
 Explain strenths and limitations of a qualitative
approach to research
 Explore the extent to which findings can be generalized
from qualitative studies.
 Explain the importance of credibility in qualitative
research.
 Explain the effect of triangulation on the
credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative research
 Explain reflexivity in qualitative research.