INTENSITY

VERSUS
MAGNITUDE
• There are two general ways to describe the strength of an eartquake. One method
is based on how people, man-made structures, natural objects, and land surfaces
behave and react in the areas affected by an earthquake. By observing and
documenting all these behaviors and reactions, are arrives at the felt intensity of
an earthquake within a given are.
• The other method of describing the strength of an earthquake is based on
instrumentmentally-derived information and correlations strength with the
amount of total energy release at the eartquake’s point of origin. Magnitude is
calculated mathematically using the amount and duration of movements that
ground vibration causes on the needle of a standard seismograph. Magnitude is a
measure of the earthquake’s size; but rather than just a direct measure of the
intensity of ground shaking, it is a reflection of the strentgh of the seismic waves
emitted by earthquakes.
• Charles F. Richter, an American seismologist, devised a scale for expressing the
total energy released by an earthquake. In 1935 he proposed a magnitude scale
which is an open-ended scale of 1 to 9. This scale is now famous and
internationally used Richter Scale.
The Richter Scale uses a logarithmic scale to express magnitude. On this scale, a
ten-fold increase in wave amplitude corresponds to an increase of one on the
magnitude scale.
MOUNTAINS
• An area of land that rises very high above the
land around it and that is higher than a hill.
• To a geologist, the mountains belt means a
long linear zone in the earth’s crust where the
rocks have been intensely deformed by
horizontal stresses and generally intruded by
molten rock material. The topography can be
high and rugged, or it can be worn down to a
surface of low relief.
 OROGENESIS
• It is the process of mountain building.

Factors that appear to be most important in this process are:

• ROCK SEQUENCES – over 100 years ago, James Hall (1811 and 1898), a noted American
Geologist, concluded that the present mountain range of the Appalachian Mountains was
once a region of the crust that gradually subsided much more than the rest of the continent.
The gradual subsidence permitted a great thickness of shallow-marine sediments to
accumulate at rates that were roughly equivalent to the ratio of subsidence. The elongated
subsiding trough is called a geosyncline. After recieving a critical thickness of sediments, the
geosyncline was compressed into a folded mountain range, which was uplifted and eroded.
The Geosynclinal Theory of mountain building was further developed by James Dana (1813-
1895), another American Geologist, who also worked in the Appalachians.
He proposed that mountain building involves the three-phase cycle made up of 1) geosynclinal
sedimentation and contemporaneous subsidence; 2) compression and deformation; 3) uplift
and erosion.
• STRUCTURAL DEFORMATION – this is deformed structure compression, in which the scale
of deformation ranges from wrinkled grains or fossils in the rocks to folds tens of kilometers
wide. A cross section of the Appalachian Mountains shows a diffrent style and magnitude of
deformation. Deformation is most intense near the continental margins, dying out toward the
continental interior.
• METAMORPHISM – this refers to changes in the mineral composition and texture of rocks
subjected to high temperature and pressure within the earth.
• IGNEOUS ACTIVITY – this is the concentration of the earth’s lighter material in the
continental crust which takes place in two steps;
The first step begins at a spreading center where partial melting of peridotite in the upper mantle
generates a basaltic magma, which rises to form oceanic crust. Basalt is richer than perodotite in
the lighter elements, especially oxygen and silicon.
The next step involves a partial melting of the oceanic crust forming a silica-rich magma,
which is then emplaced in the mountain belt as granitic intrusions and andesitic volcanic
products. Lighter elements especially silicon and oxygen, are thus separated further in this
process and concentrated in the continental crust. The granitic continental crust is less dense
than the mantle and the oceanic crust, and its buoyancy prevents it form being consumed at
subduction zones. The continental crust remains at the surface of the earth once it is
formed.
• Erosion and Isostatic adjustment of the crust takes place after orogenesis and continues
until the mountain belt is eroded to near sea level.
 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF
MOUNTAINS

• GEOGRAPHICALLY AND CHRONOLOGICALLY according to their arrangement.

- this classification divides mountains into cordillera system ranges, groups, chains, and single
mountains.
• STRUCTURALLY, ACCORDING TO THEIR GELOGICAL STRATIFICATION.
- this classification of mountains is based upon the gelogical processes by which they have been
formed.
* Mountains may also result where erosion cuts irregularly into a broad area that has been uplifted by diastrophic
forces. Finally, there are mountains that result more or less directly from diastrophic movement; these may result from
the doming or arching and uplift of relatively narrow zones. Most of the great mountain systems of the world either
are or were originally folded and up-lifted by this latter process.
 KINDS OF MOUNTAINS

• FOLDED MOUNTAINS or
COMPLEX MOUNTAINS – these
result from folding of sedimentary or lava
beds or may result from variable resistance
to erosion. In the dipping strata of the folds,
weak beds are eroded first, leaving resistant
beds as synclical or monoclinal ridges. They
are the largest and most complex mountain
systems. Examples: Alps, Urals, Himalayas, and
Appalachian Mountains.
• VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS – these
result from the accumulation of lava and
pyroclastics of volcanic events. Each of the peaks
was formed by the gradual building up ot its
slopes. This occured mainly by accumulation of
volcanic fragments and lava from succesive
eruptions. Molten rock, hurled into the air, cools
rapidly and solidifies. The resulting particles are
irregular in shape. They rapidly build up very
steep sides around the central opening of crater.
Examples of volcanic mountain ranges that rose
from the Pacific Ocean floor are the Hawaiian
and Aleutian Islands.
• EROSION VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS – these are
single mountains or a group of mountains that have been
formed by the erosion of streams. Earth forces raise rocks to high
altitudes, therefore deepening the valleys and isolating their
peaks. The Sierra Madre Mountain Range in Luzon has been
formed because of the deep eroded area occupying very wide
places with many peaks. The Zambales Mountains are grouped in
a series of related ridges that form a continuous unit.
Individual mountain ranges are formed by one kind of diastrophic
movement or volcanic activity. They may be extended ridges or a
number of parallel ridges like the one in Cavite, the Tagaytay Ridge.
The Sierra Madre Mountain ranges of Eastern Luzon and the
Cordillera Mountains in Northern Luzon are a collection of
mountains ranges known as a cordillera
(a system of mountain ranges oftenconsisting of
a number of more or less parallel chains).
• FAULT-BLOCK MOUNTAINS – these are
mountains that are formed by the displacement of a
rock along a fault. Excellent examples of these are
the mountains found in the Basin and Range
Province, a region that encompasses Nevada and
portions of Utah, New Mexico, Arizona, and
California, and Marinduque Mountains in the
Philiplines. Here, the crust has literally been broken
into hundreds of pieces, giving rise to nearly parallel
mountain ranges, averaging about 80 kilometers in
length, which rise precipitously above the adjacent
sediment-laden basins.
UPWARPED MOUNTAINS –
these are produced in association with a
broad arching of the crust or in some
instances because of vertical
displacement along high angle faults. As
the regions were upwarped, erosion
removed the veneer of sediments strata,
leaving a core of igneous and
metamorphic rocks satnding above the
surrounding terrain. Examples of these
are the Black Hills in Western South
Dakota and the Adirondack Mountains in
upstate New York.
 PHILIPPINE MOUNTAINS AND PEAKS

With 7,100 islands, the Philippines is grouped into three island-groups – Luzon,Visayas, and
Mindanao. The Philippine mountains are volcanic in origin and, in general, have moderate elevation.
Situated in the tropical latitude, these mountains have tropical vegetation. There are no alpine
summits in the country like the 13, 455-foot Mt. Kinabalu in Malaysia. A tropical mountain must
reach and elevation of at least 11, 500 ft. to be able to acquire alpine conditions. Significally, the
equatorial 16, 503-foot Puncak Jaya (or Carstensz Pyramid) in Indonesia is an Alpine mountain.
LUZON MOUNTAINS AND PEAKS
- Luzon, the second largest island in the Philippine Archipelago, has the greatest concentration of
the country’s highest peaks (above 8, 000 ft.) like Mt. Pulog, particularly in its Cordillera Range. A
member-island, Mindoro, is one among four islands in the country with at least an 8, 000-footer.
 MOUNT MANAPHAG
Situated in Pan de Azucar Island of the coast of Concepcion town in Iloilo, Mt. Manaphag is
possibly the steepest peak in the country. The climbs of Western Visayas mountaineers utilized
the Ponting Trail in the Northern side of the mountain. The First Ancient of the South Face (without
trail) was performed by the Victorias Climbing Party from April 12-15, 1002. The East Face,
eocky and steep like tge South Face, remains unchallenged.
The Philippines’ Highest
Mountains:The 8, 000-footers
PEAKS IN THE NORTHERN NEGROS
FOREST RESERVE
 ECONOMIC VALUE OF
MOUNTAINS
The scarcity of the soil, the steep slopes, the narrow valleys, and the cold climate of mountains
generally make them poor farming areas. Still, they are valuable to man in many ways. Their humid
slopes provide lush grasses for grazing. Their streams provide water for irrigation and for electric
power. They contain rich deposits of valuable minerals and large quantities of precious metals.
From them we obtain building stones and woods which are needed to build a progressive
country. They provide comfortable vacation lands and places for relaxation and revreation.
Young Mature Old
High elevation, still growing Elevation not very high, peaks Low elevation, approaching the
lowering peneplane

Rugged irregular skyline, good
scenery, snowcrapped
Steep slope with base talus
Young rushing streams, often
torrential with deep ravines, narrow
valleys
Rounded tops, covered with
vegetation
Uniform gentle slopes with covered
talus
Mature, slow-flowing streams water
gaps, valleys much wider
Monad rocks stand out
Region rather flat with low, rolling
hills
Streams old, move slowly, have low
banks

Avalanches common; landslides and Avalanches rare; eartquakes unknown

earthquakes occur
Rocks, Alps, Andes, Himalayas Appalachians
mountains andirondack
PLATEAUS
 PLATEAUS
A plateau is an extensive upland region. It is also often referred to as tableland, since it is
essentially flat-topped and stands conspicuously above an adjacent land area. Along its outer margin
it gives way to hills or mountains. The Bukidnon Plateau in Mindanao is about 600 meters high.
ELEVATION OF PLATEAUS
The elevation of most plateaus of thw world exceeds 2, 000 ft. Height above the sea level, however,
is not the sole factor in classifying a land form as a plateau.
ORIGIN OF PLATEAUS
True plateaus may be classified according to their origin. Most plateau regions are the result of
diastrophism. Some results of volcanism. In diastrophism, the two broadest kinds of
deformation processes are epligrogency and orogency. Epligrogency involves the relative rise and
full of broad segments of the crust with little or no folding.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PLATEAUS
One of the greatest economic values of plateau canyons is that they can be dammed to impound the water in large
reservoirs. The stored water can be used for irrigation and for the generation of electricity. Some plateaus ore deposits,
like the mexican plateau which is rich in silver ores. In tropical regions, the cold, dry climate of plateaus is and
advantage. Temperate crops can be grown in their upper parts where the temperature is lower. In lowlands, tropical
products can be grown. In arid regions, plateaus are used as pasture lands.

LIFE HISTORY OF PLATEAUS

The appearance of a pleatrau at different stages of erosion depends on climatic conditions, and also on the type of rock
that is being cut into by the streams.
• Young Plateaus have more rounded surfaces and gentler slopes, with soil covering and some status. Streams are
few, however, and cut deep into the rock.
• Mature Plateaus are generally valled mountains, since they are rugged areas. Numerous streams have cut wide
valleys through the broad surfaces of the original plateau.
• Old-age Plateaus are worn almost level, with mere remnants of the original plateau. In arid regions, they are steep-
walled with flat upper surface.
PLAINS
A plain is a land surface that is comparatively flat and relatively close to sea level. Plains may
extend from inland, rising gradually to the sea’s edges.

ORIGINS OF PLAINS
LIFE HISTORY OF PLAINS
• Young plains are extensive level areas with few, widely seperated shallow river valleys.
Beacause of the flatness, the rivers flow slowly. Drainage is poor and often there are lakes and
swamps.
• Mature plains are those where the streams have acquired new tributaries and have widened
and deepened their valleys. This produces an area of gently rolling surface with good drainage.
The prauries are mature plains.
• Old-age plains are also worn level just like the old-age plateaus, often thickly covered with
deposits of soils and silts.
IMPORTANCE of PLAINS
Plains are easy to cultivate, easy to cross and move products across, and easy to build on. It is on
plains, large and small, that most of the world’s population, agriculture, cities, industries,
commercial districts, and transportation centers are found. Canals, railroads, roads, and airports
are built on plains. Soil is finer, deeper, and more fertile than in neighbor areas.