Note: The majority of content in this powerpoint was

obtained from the website of B. Dodge, Department of

Applied Health Science at Indiana University.
http://phhp.ufl.edu/~bdodge/,

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 2

 What is Qualitative Research?
• A holistic approach to questions--a
recognition that human realities are
complex. Broad questions.
• The focus is on human experience
• The research strategies used generally
feature sustained contact with people in
settings where those people normally
spend their time. Contexts of Human
Behavior.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 3

 Qualitative Research cont.
• There is typically a high level of researcher
involvement with subjects; strategies of
participant observation and in-depth,
unstructured interviews are often used.
• The data produced provide a description,
usually narrative, of people living through
events in situations.
Cited from Boyd, pp. 67-68 in Munhall, 2001

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 4

 Types of Qualitative Data
• 1. Interviews

• 2. Observations

• 3. Documents

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 5

 Types of Qualitative Data
• 1. Interviews
– Open-ended questions and probes yield in-depth
responses about people’s experiences, opinions,
perceptions, feelings and knowledge.

– Data consist of verbatim quotations with

sufficient context to be interpretable.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 6

 Types of Qualitative Data cont.
• 2. Observations
– Fieldwork descriptions of activities, behaviors,
actions, conversations, interpersonal
interactions, organizational or community
processes, or any other aspect of observable
human experience.

– Data consist of field notes: rich detailed

descriptions, including the context within which
the observations were made.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 7

 Types of Qualitative Data cont.
• 3. Documents
– Written materials and other documents, programs
records; memoranda and correspondence; official
publications and reports; personal diaries, letters,
artistic works, photographs, and memorabilia; and
written responses to open-ended surveys.

– Data consists of excerpts from documents captured

in a way that records and preserves context.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 8

 Qualitative Traditions of Inquiry
• 1. Biography--Life history, oral
history
• 2. Phenomenology--The lived
experience
• 3. Grounded theory
• 4. Ethnography
• 5. Case Study

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 9

 Biographical Study

– The study of an individual and her or his

experiences as told to the researcher or found
in documents and archival material.

– Life history--The study of an individual’s life

and how it reflects cultural themes of the
society.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 10

 Biographical Study cont.
– Oral history--The researcher gathers personal
recollections of events, their causes, and their
effects from and individual or several individuals.

– The researcher needs to collect extensive

information about the subject of the biography

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 11

 Biographical Study cont.

The writer, using an interpretive approach, needs

to be able to bring himself or herself into the
narrative and acknowledge his or her standpoint.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 12

 Phenomenology
– Describes the meaning of the lived experience
about a concept or a phenomenon for several
individuals.

– It has roots in the philosophical perspectives of

Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, etc.
--Max Van Manen, Munhall (Nursing)

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 13

 Phenomenology

• Moustakas, 1994, p. 13: “to determine what

an experience means for the persons who
have had the experience and are able to
provide a comprehensive description of it.
From the individual descriptions, general or
universal meanings are derived, in other
words, the essences of structures of the
experience.”

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 14

 Grounded Theory

–Based on Symbolic Interactionism

which posits that humans act and
interact on the basis of symbols,
which have meaning and value for
the actors.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 15

 Grounded Theory cont.
• The intent of grounded theory is to
generate or discover a theory that
relates to a particular situation. If
little is known about a topic,
grounded theory is especially
useful

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 16

 Grounded Theory cont.

–Usually have a question, don’t do

a literature review in the beginning.

–Usually do 20-30 interviews

(maybe more than one time for
each person)

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 17

 Grounded Theory cont.

– Data collection and analysis occur

simultaneously, until “saturation” is reached.

– Data reviewed and coded for categories and

themes.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 18

 Grounded Theory cont.
– Data analysis generates a visual picture, a
narrative statement or a series of hypotheses
with a central phenomenon, causal conditions,
context and consequences.

– The researcher needs to set aside theoretical

ideas or notions so that analytical or substantive
theories can emerge from the data.

– Systematic approach

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 19

 Ethnography
– A description and interpretation of a cultural
or social group or system. The researcher
examines the group’s observable and learned
patterns of behavior, customs, and ways of
life.

– Involves prolonged observation of the group,

typically through participant observation.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 20

 Ethnography

– Field Work
– Key Informants
– Thick description
– Emic (insider group perspective) and Etic
(researcher’s interpretation of social life).
– Context important, need holistic view.
– Need grounding in anthropology.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 21

 Ethnography cont.

– Need extensive time to collect data

– Many ethnographies may be written in a

narrative or story telling approach which may
be difficult for the audience accustomed to
usual social science writing.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 22

 Ethnography cont.

–May incorporate quantitative data

and archival documents.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 23

 Case Study

– A case study is an exploration of a “bounded

system” or a case (or multiple cases) over
time through detailed, in-depth data
collection involving multiple sources of
information rich in context.

– The context of the case involves situating the

case within its setting. which may be physical,
social, historical and/or economic.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 24

 Case Study cont.

– Data collection strategies include direct

observation, interviews, documents, archival
records, participant observation, physical
artifacts and audiovisual materials.

– Analysis of themes, or issues and an

interpretation of the case by the researcher.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 25

 Feminist Research
• Uses feminist theory as the philosophical underpinning of the
approach.
• Assumes most formal knowledge is generated by men.
• Assumes that patriarchy and the use of power is harmful to
women.
• Some feminists also recognize social class and race as socially
generated constructs that are used to oppress others.

Qualitative Research--Simpson 26
Spring 2006
 Feminist Research is often classified in the “qualitative
research” family because:
• It is used to generate new knowledge.
• It’s purpose is to create social change.
• It argues against the “top-down,” hierarchal relationships
associated with male-dominated knowledge by minimizing
the social distance between researcher and subject.
Respondents often participate in the research process.
• It focuses on the position in society of research subjects and
the researcher.
• The perspectives or standpoint of the subject and researcher
are central in data collection and analysis.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 27

 The term standpoint refers to:
• The perspectives or lived experiences of the
researcher and his or her subjects.
• These perspectives vary based on the location of
individuals in the social structure. Are their
perspectives different from those with privileged
positions in society. Is this standpoint associated
with oppression based on social class,
ethnicity/race, gender, sexual orientation etc. or
some combination of these attributes.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 28

 Designing a Qualitative Study

• Problem Statement or Statement of Need

for the Study
• No hypothesis; Research questions which
you want to answer instead.
• Opinions differ about the extent of
literature needed before a study begins.
• Need to identify the gaps in knowledge
about the topic.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 29
 Qualitative Study Design cont.
• Research questions that are too broad:
– Does Buddhism account for the patience that
seems to dominate the Thai world view?

– How do leaders make their decisions?

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 30

 Qualitative Study Design cont.
• Research questions better answered
by quicker means:

– What television programs do Brazilians watch

most?

– Where can you buy postage stamps in

Italy?

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 31

 Qualitative Study Design cont.

• Examples of Qualitative Questions

– What do people in this setting have to know in order to do what
they are doing?

– What is the story that can be told from these experiences?

– What are the underlying themes and contexts that account for
the experience?

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 32

 Qualitative Sampling Strategies

• No probability sampling

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 33

 Sampling Strategies cont.
• Decisions about sampling and sampling
strategies depend on the unit of analysis
which has been determined.
– individual people
– program, group organization or community
– genders, ethnic groups, older and younger

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 34

 Sampling Strategies cont.
• Purposeful or Judgment Sampling
– “In judgment sampling, you decide the
purpose you want informants (or
communities) to serve, and you go out to find
some” Bernard, 2000:176

– “Key Informants” are people who are

particularly knowledgeable about the inquiry
setting and articulate about their knowledge.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 35

 Sampling Strategies cont.
• Purposeful Sampling Strategies
– Maximum variation
– Homogeneous
– Critical case
– Theory based
– Confirming and disconfirming cases

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 36

 Sampling Strategies cont.

– Snowball or chain
– Extreme or deviant case
– Typical case
– Intensity
– Politically important cases
– Random purposeful

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 37

 Sampling Strategies cont.

– Stratified purposeful
– Criterion
– Opportunistic
– Combination or mixed
– Convenience

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 38

 Qualitative Data Collection
• Rather than developing an instrument to use,
the qualitative researcher is the instrument.
• Recording data: Field notes, tape recorders,
video and photographic data
• Interviews must be transcribed.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 39

 Fieldwork Strategies and Observations
• “In the fields of observation, chance favors
the prepared mind.” Louis Pasteur

• “People only see what they are prepared to

see.” Ralph Waldo Emerson

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 40

 Fieldwork Observations

• Learn to pay attention, see what there is to

see, and hear what there is to hear.
• Practice writing descriptively
• Acquiring discipline in recording field notes
• Knowing how to separate detail from trivia
to achieve the former without being
overwhelmed by the latter.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 41

 Fieldwork Observations cont.

• Use rigorous methods to validate and

triangulate observations.
• Reporting strengths and limitations of one’s
own perspective, which requires both self-
knowledge and self-disclosure.
• Participant observer or onlooker or both

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 42

 Qualitative Interviewing
1. Informal conversational interview

2. Interview guide approach

3. Standardized open-ended interview

4. Closed, fixed-response interview

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 43

 Qualitative Interviewing cont.
• Sequencing questions
• Use words that make sense to the people
being interviewed.
• Ask truly open-ended questions
• Avoid questions which can be answered
with a yes or no.
• One idea per question.
• Be careful with Why questions.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 44

 Qualitative Data Analysis
• When does analysis begin? During data
collection.
• Thick description is the foundation for
qualitative analysis and reporting.
• Organize the data. Read all the data and get
a sense of the whole.
• Coding for recurring themes and categories

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 45

 Qualitative Data Analysis
• Computer-assisted qualitative data
management and analysis
– Ethnograph
– NUD*IST (Non-numerical Unstructured Data
With Indexing, Searching and Theorizing) QSR N6
and QSR NVivo
– ATLAS.ti

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 46

 Qualitative Data Analysis
• Coding data
• Finding Patterns
• Labeling Themes
• Developing Category Systems
• Looking for emergent patterns in the data

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 47

 References
Bernard, H.R. (2000). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and
Quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Creswell, J.W. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design:
Choosing Among Five Traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Munhall, P.L. (2001). Nursing Research: A Qualitative
Perspective, 3rd Edition. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett
Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research & Evaluation
Methods, 3rd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 48

Basics of Qualitative Research
Design
Berg Ch. 2
Leedy and Ormrod Ch. 3 - 5
 Three General Approaches to Research

APPROACH POSITIVISM CRITICAL INTERPRETIVE

USUAL TYPE experiment, historical- field research,
OF RESEARCH survey, comparative interviews
cont. anal.

PERSPECTIVE technocratic transcendent transcendent

TYPE OF LOGIC reconstructed logic-in-practice logic-in-practice

PATH linear non-linear non-linear

/cyclical /cyclical
 Qualitative methodology
• Data in words rather than numbers
• Non-positivistic orientation
• Includes:
– Field research and ethnography
– Observation, case studies
– Qualitative interviewing
– Action research
– Historical comparative analysis
Characteristics of Qualitative Research

• Context is critical
• In depth, detailed
• Researcher immerses self in data (non-
objective)
• Researcher integrity
• Bias recognized
• Use of grounded theory
• Can detect process and sequence
• Data are interpreted rather than analyzed
 Ideas and Theory
The Deductive The Inductive
(Quantitative) Process (Qualitative) Process
– Ideas and theory come o Research leads to
before empirical theory development
research o Research initiates,
– Ideas lead to reformulates, deflects
refutation through and clarifies theory
research

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010

 What is Theory?
• “a statement of relationships between
concepts”

• “a roadmap for organizing ideas and

knowledge about the social world”
 Theory Parts
• Concepts
– Concept clusters
– Classification concepts (ideal types)

• Assumptions

• Typology or Taxonomy

• Relationships
 The Measurement Process
• Quantitative = deductive

• Qualitative = inductive

• Both involve conceptualization and

operationalization
 Concepts
• Symbolic elements
• Foundation of communication and
thought
• Two distinct parts
– Symbolic elements (word, symbol, term)
– Definitional element

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010

 Operationalization of a
Concept
• Conceptualize
– Providing a working definition of a concept
– Use theory and research
• Operationalize
– providing the criteria for measuring a concept
– What, specifically, will you be observing?
– Often continues throughout the research process

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010

Process of Qualitative
Operationalization:
Empirical Observations

Working Ideas

Concepts

Generalizations/Theories
 Berg’s Blended Model
• The Spiraling Research Approach
• Begin with a rough idea
• Gather theoretical information
• Reconsider and redefine
Process: Idea
-- Lit. Review (involves Theory)
-- Design
-- Data Collection/Organization
-- Analysis/Findings
--Dissemination
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
 Choosing a Research Problem

• Where do problems come from?

– Practical problems in the field

– The literature in the field
– Personal interest
 Examples of Problems:

• The purpose of this study is to examine the

effect of body image and PPF (perceived
physical fitness) for different exercise settings
• The purpose of this study is to examine the
type of talk during a writing activity to
determine if there is a difference between off
topic and on topic talk on the quality of
students’ writing samples
 Reviewing the Literature
• Recommended Sources:
– Journal articles
– Books
– Conference proceedings
– Government / corporate reports
– Library Databases
• Other Sources (not recommended)
– Newspapers and Magazines
– Internet esp. sites like Wikipedia
 The Annotated Bibliography
• A very useful first step…

• Consists of a bibliographic citation and a

descriptive and evaluative annotation of a
selection of your most useful sources
 Reviewing the Literature
• Formulate a rough question
• Visit the Library
– Conduct both online and in-print searches
• Make a list of search terms
• Evaluate the results

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010

 Evaluating Web Sites

• Information to check on every website

– URL
– Domain
– Date of last update
– Corroborating information

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010

 Writing The Literature Review

• Concentrates on the scientific research

• Provides the context for your research

• Justifies the proposed study

• Summarizes and evaluates the literature in the

field
 Questions to be answered in a
literature review:
• 1. What do we already know in the immediate area concerned?
• 2. What are the characteristics of the key concepts (or the main factors
or variables)?
• 3. What are the relationships between these key concepts, factors or
variables?
• 4. What are the existing generalizations or theories?
• 5. Where are the inconsistencies/shortcomings in our knowledge and
understanding?
• 6. What views need to be (further) explored?
• 7. What information or evidence is lacking, inconclusive, contradictory
or too limited?
• 8. Why study (further) the research problem?
• 9. What contribution can the present study be expected to make?
• 10. What research designs or methods seem unsatisfactory?
 Tips:
• Remember the purpose
• Read with a purpose
• Write with a purpose

• Always put citations into your writing

immediately
• Keep a bibliographic file
 Berg’s Two-Card Method

– Author Card o Topic Card

• Full citation oAuthor’s name
• Library call oDate of
number publication
oBrief topical label
oVerbatim excerpt

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010

 Janesick (1994) in Berg….
“design is the choreography that
establishes the research
dance”

• What are the implications of this

statement?
 The Research Design
• The plan for conducting a study
– Foresee possible glitches
– Consider appropriate pacing
– Appraise ethical proprieties

• Feasibility is contingent on many factors:

– Length of time to do the study
– Ethical constraints
– Cooperation of others
– Cost of conducting the research
– Researcher’s own skills
 Setting
• Identification of a data-collection site
– Practical
• entry or access - gatekeepers
• availability
– Reasonable in size and complexity
– Appropriateness

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010

 Sampling Strategies

• Probability Sampling
– Mathematically representative of the larger
population
– Relies on random sampling
• Non-Probability Sampling
– Doesn’t require a list of the population elements
– Can be used with difficult or sensitive populations

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010

 Probability Sampling
• Simple Random Sampling
– Every unit has the same chance of inclusion
• Systematic Random Sampling
– Every nth unit is selected from the list
• Stratified Random Sampling
– Independent samples from subgroups of the
sample
• Cluster Sampling
– Clusters are randomly and elements within are
randomly selected
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
 Non-probability Sampling
• Convenience Samples
– Relies on available subjects
• Purposive Samples
– Researcher knowledge or expertise
• Snowball Samples
– Respondent-driven
• Quota Samples
– Proportional matrix
 Data Analysis
• Data Reduction
– Reduce and transform the data
• Data Display
– Organize and assemble the data
• Conclusions and Verification
– Confirm initial conclusions through double
checking and independent examination

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010

 Dissemination
• Writing the final report on your research for
publication or presentation to a funding
agency
• Integral part of the research process