Agricultural Methods and Pest

Management
Chapter 15
The Development of Agriculture
• Early ancestors
obtained food by
hunting and gathering
• Agriculture has
developed from a need
to provide for a growing
population
• This has involved
various kinds of
innovations
1. Shifting Agriculture (a.k.a. “Slash
and Burn”)
• Cutting down and burning
trees and small vegetation to
release nutrients from this
biomass
• While soil is suitable a few
crops can be grown (2-3
years)/Then site is
abandoned to allow forest to
recolonize
• Temporary use prevents
much erosion
• Used in places with
nutrient-poor soil and
on steep slopes
• Also where human
population is low, to
reduce the size and
number of these plots
 Polyculture
• Planting a mixture of crops in one garden plot
• Taller plants may help shade-requiring
plants/May reduce insect pest problems
• Because only temporary, reduce insect
infestations
 2. Labor-Intensive Agriculture
• Used when:

A) site does not allow for

mechanization
ex. mountainous regions
or small plots
B) when the kind of crop does not
allow it
– ex. rice
C) Economic condition of people
(less-developed regions can’t
afford machinery)
– Ex. Many parts of Africa, Asia,
and Central/South America
 3. Mechanized Agriculture
• Used Typical in North
America, Europe and
parts that have:
• A) money and
• B) large amounts of land
available
• This Requires large
expenses and fairly level
land
• Has greatly increased
amount of food available
 Monoculture
• Planting of one crop on a large
tract of land
• Reduces the need for change
of machinery
• Drawbacks: increases erosion,
reduces needed organic matter

Green Revolution
• Benefits: Advances in
agriculture have lead to more
food production
• Drawbacks:
• 1.requires use of pesticides,
• 2. more water, and
• 3. dependence on industries
for specialized seeds
 Fossil Fuel vs. Muscle Power
• Mechanized agriculture requires extensive
use of fossil fuels although food production
has dramatically increased
• 2 factors that drastically affect food prices:
• 1. Change in oil cost or
• 2. availability of fuels
 Impact of Fertilizer
• Valuable because increase soil nutrients
removed by plants
• Three nutrients in short supply: nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium (Macronutrients)
• Micronutrients needed in small nutrients
include boron, zinc, and manganese
 Agricultural Chemical Use
• Pesticide- chemical
used to kill or control
unwanted populations
(fungi, animals, or
plants)- called Pests
• Weeds-unwanted
plants
 Pesticide Categories
• Insecticides- kills insect
populations
• Fungicides-fungal pests that
weaken plants
• Rodenticides- kill mice and rats
• Herbicides- kill weeds

• Pesticides-may also be called

biocides b/c can kill variety of living
things
• Pest called target organism when inhibits
specific pest
• Most pesticides not specific so they may
kill nontarget organisms

• Persistent pesticides remain active long

period of time
• Nonpersistent pesticides break down
quickly
 Insecticides
• DDT-first insecticide
used (P.334)
• It is persistent
• half-life of 10-15 yrs.
• Affected many non-
target organisms
 Categories of Insecticides
1. Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
• Contain carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine
– Ex. DDT
• Stable-effective for long time but accumulate in
soil and food chain
• Many no longer used b/c of negative effects
 2. Organophosphates and
Carbamates
• Nonpersistent/ Decompose in hours or
days
• Not species-specific
• More toxic b/c affect nervous system-
uncontrolled spasms-result in death
• Must apply w/special equipment & have
training
 Herbicides
• Control unwanted
vegetation
• Important since take
nutrients and water
from soil/crops need
these
• Type of herbicide-
Auxins- disrupt
normal growth/death
 Fungicides
• 2 types of fungi:
• 1. Decompose
organic material &
Parasites on crop
plants

• 2. Used as fumigants
(gases), sprays, and
seed treatments
 Rodenticides
• Rodents destroy food supplies/carry disease
• Warfarin-one of most widely used-causes
internal bleeding in animals, even other
mammals
• Must be careful
 Problems w/Pesticide Use
1. Persistence
2. Bioaccumlation/bio
magnification
3. Pesticide
Resistance
4. Effects on Nontarget
Organisms
5. Human Health
Concerns
 1. Persistence
• B/c of their stability, have become long-
term problem
• Attach to small soil particles & can be
carried anywhere by wind or water
• Been found in the ice of the poles/ human
body tissues
 2. Bioaccumulation/
biomagnification
• Bioaccumulation- accumulating higher &
higher amounts of material in animal
bodies
• If animal w/pesticides eaten by another,
then concentrates in that animal-leading to
disease or death
• Biomagnification- increasing levels of
substance in higher-trophic-level
organisms (Fig. 15.9)
 3. Pesticide Resistance
• Pest populations may become resistant to
pesticides
• Ones with characteristics that tolerate the
chemicals may live to reproduce/their
offspring may also posses these
 4. Effects on Nontarget
Organisms
• Most are not specific/ kill beneficial
species as well as pests (Mainly
Insecticides)
• Most often becomes irreversible tactic
since stopping my result in rapid increase
of pests
 5. Human Health Concerns
• May result in short-term or long-term
health effects
• Pesticide poisoning needing medical
treatment in the U.S. are in the thousands
per year/ World wide-? (many go
unreported)
• Dues to improper applications/unaware of
precautions when applying
 Contd.
• Many have been proven to cause
mutations, cancers, abnormal births in
experimental animals
• Studies of exposed farmers over years
have higher levels of certain cancers
 Why Are Pesticides So Widely
Used?
• Has increased the amount of food that can
be grown worldwide
• The economic value: farmers increase in
profit from crops/ businesses increase
from pesticide sales
• Control insect populations that cause
many health problems
 Alternative Agriculture
• All nontraditional agricultural methods
• Includes the following:
• Sustainable Agriculture-Seeks methods to
produce safe food in an economically
viable manner while enhancing health of
agricultural land
• Organic Agriculture-Advocates avoiding
the use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides
 Techniques for protecting soil and
water resources
• Two problems for soil: Compaction and
reduction in organic matter

• Reduce these problems by: farm

equipment traveling less over soil
(compaction) & leaving crop residue on
the soil (increases organic matter)
 Precision Agriculture

• Uses modern computer technology and

geographic information systems, based on
soil and topography, to automatically vary
chemicals applied to the crop at different
places within a field.
• Less fertilizer is used, and used more
effectively.
 Integrated Pest Management
• Uses a variety of methods to control pest
rather than pesticides alone
• Must understand all ecological aspects of
the crops and the pests to which they are
susceptible
 Disrupting Reproduction
• Pheromone- chemical released by
females to attract males
• Spraying areas with synthetic odors
confuses males & they don’t find female
mates Ex. Moths
• Male sterilization- growing sterile males
to mate with females also greatly reduces
populations Ex. Screwworm fly
•
 Using Beneficial Organisms to
Control Pests
• Ladybird Beetles or Ladybugs- feed on
aphids which can destroy crops, such as
orange tree decline in California in late
1800s
• Some insects can also control weeds
• Naturally occurring pesticides in plants
help control pests (garlic plants-Japanese
beetles)
 Developing Resistant Crops
• Genetic engineering- Inserting specific
pieces of DNA into genetic makeup of
organisms
• Known as genetically modified organisms
• A bacteria BTI produces material that
destroys lining of insect guts, this gene
has been inserted into several crop plants
(Corn)
 Modifying Farm Practices
• Destroying crop residues to prevent
overwintering ground for insects
• Crop rotation-planting a mixture of crops
reduces specific insects that buildup from
same crop being planted year after year
 Selective Use Of Pesticides
• Identifying when will have greatest impact
on pests-reduces amount used
• Integrated pest management