Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Fourth Edition
GEORGE B. JOHNSON
Fig. 1.1
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1.2 Properties of Life
All living organisms share five basic properties
1. Cellular Organization
All living organisms are composed of at least one cell
2. Metabolism
All living organisms use energy
3. Homeostasis
All living organisms maintain stable internal conditions
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1.2 Properties of Life
All living organisms share five basic properties
4. Growth and reproduction
All living organisms grow and reproduce
5. Heredity
All living organisms possess a genetic system that is
based on DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid
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1.3 The Organization of Life
Living organisms function and interact with
each other at many levels
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Fig. 1.4
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Fig. 1.4
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Fig. 1.4
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1.3 The Organization of Life
Each higher level contains novel properties
not present at the simpler level of organization
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1.4 Biological Themes
1. Evolution
The genetic change in a species over time
It is a result of a process termed natural selection
Variation may also be caused by artificial selection
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1.5 How Scientists Think
Deductive Reasoning
Using accepted general principles as a “guide” to
explain specific observations
It is the reasoning of
Mathematics
Philosophy
Politics
Ethics
It is also how a computer works
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1.5 How Scientists Think
Inductive Reasoning
Discovering general principles through
examination of specific cases
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Fig. 1.5
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1.6 Science in Action: A Case Study
In 1985, a scientist discovered low levels of
ozone in the upper Antarctic atmosphere
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1.6 Science in Action: A Case Study
The ozone layer protects us from the sun’s
ultraviolet (UV) rays
1% drop in ozone 6% increase in skin cancers
Its depletion is a serious world problem
So governments have rushed to correct the
situation
There is now a worldwide reduction in CFC
production
The ozone layer will recover by mid-21st century
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1.7 Stages of a Scientific Investigation
The scientific process can be divided into
six stages
1. Observation
Careful observation of a process or phenomenon
2. Hypothesis
Guess regarding the observation
If more than one guess, alternative hypotheses are
formed
3. Prediction
Expected consequences based on the correct
hypothesis
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1.7 Stages of a Scientific Investigation
The scientific process can be divided into
six stages
4. Testing
The hypothesis is tested through an experiment
5. Controls
A factor that influences a process is called a variable
In a control experiment, all variables are held constant
6. Conclusion
Based on the results of the experiment, a hypothesis
is either accepted or rejected
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Fig. 1.7
Observation
Questio
n
Hypothesis 1
Hypothesis 2 Reject
Hypothesis 3 Experiment hypotheses
Hypothesis 4 1 and 4
Hypothesis 5
Potential
hypotheses
Hypothesis 5 Reject
Hypothesis 3 Experiment hypotheses
Hypothesis 2 2 and 3
Remaining
possible Last remaining
hypotheses Hypothesis 5
possible hypothesis
Predictions
Predictions
confirmed
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1.8 Theory and Certainty
A theory is a set of hypotheses that have been
tested many times and not rejected
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1.8 Theory and Certainty
Note:
To scientists, a theory represents that of
which they are most certain
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1.8 Theory and Certainty
The scientific “method”
A series of logical “either/or” predictions
tested by experiments to reject alternative
hypotheses
This trial-and-error testing was once viewed
as the way scientific progress is made
However, science is not done this way!
Insight and imagination are necessary to
good scientific examination
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1.8 Theory and Certainty
The limitations of science
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The Cell Theory: Organization of Life
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Fig. 1.12 The
gene theory
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The Theory of Heredity: Unity of Life
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Fig. 1.15
The tree
of life
Crocodiles are
more closely-
related to birds
than to other
reptiles
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The Theory of Evolution: Diversity of Life
Bacteria
Archaea
Eukarya
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Fig. 1.16 Simplest and most diverse;
Gave rise to the other three eukaryotic
kingdoms
Prokaryotes
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