Kidney, Excretion &

Osmoregulation
 Objectives
Students should be able to:

5.1. explain the need to remove nitrogenous and other excretory products from the
body; Revision of the formation of urea.

5.2. describe the gross structure of the kidney and the detailed structure of the
nephron and associated blood vessels; Annotated diagrams required. Make diagrams
of sections of the kidney from prepared sides.

5.3. explain the function of the kidney in terms of excretion and osmoregulation; and,
Include the role of ADH. Mention the clinical significance of glucose and protein in the
urine. Student investigation of prepared solutions simulating urine samples of different
compositions. Appropriate activity for Planning and Design.

5.4. discuss the clinical significance of the presence of glucose and protein in the
urine.
 Objectives
The Kidney, Excretion and Osmoregulation
Students should be able to:
– explain the need to remove nitrogenous and other excretory products from the body;

review the formation of urea.

– describe the gross structure of the kidney and the detailed structure of the nephron and
associated blood vessels;

Annotated diagrams required

– make drawings of sections of the kidney from prepared slides;

– explain the function of the kidney in terms of excretion and osmoregulation;

Include the role of ADH.

– discuss the clinical significance of the presence of glucose and protein in the urine;
 Definitions
Excretion: removal of metabolic waste from the
body

Egestion (defaecation): removal of undigested food

from the gut .

Secretion: release of useful substances from cells

e.g hormones

Osmoregulation : maintenance of constant osmotic

conditions in the body involving the maintenance
of water and solute concentrations( sodium ,
potassium , chloride ions )
 Importance of Excretion &
Osmoregulation
To maintain equilibrium : the direction of a
chemical reaction is depends on the amount of
products and reactants.
To removal waste : some waste is toxic to the
organism or may act as inhibitors to metabolic
reactions.
To Regulate ionic concentration of body fluids
needed to maintain body functions
To regulate water content of body fluid
To regulate blood pH
 Excretory Products
*Nitrogenous compounds :are produced from the
breakdown of proteins, nucleic acid, and excess amino acids.
-The amino group is first removed from the amino acid by
deamination . This is then converted to ammonia.
Ammonia- 1st product of deamination (toxic, soluble).
In the Liver it is converted to Urea (non toxic & soluble).
-Uric acid in humans is formed by the break down of nucleic
acids e.g nucleotides. (High nitrogen content, low toxicity, low
solubility
*Carbondioxide (from respiration)
*Bile ( breakdown of haem in heamoglobin by the
liver)
 Excretory Structure
Skin: sweat ( heat, water ,urea, salts )
Lungs : carbondioxide , water vapour
Liver: deamination, detoxification excess amino
acids=urea, bile pigments from haem
Kidney: urine
 Urea formation
Urea as a waste product :
• Non toxic( travel via blood)
• Soluble require little water to excrete it
• Small molecule- easily filtered by the kidney

Involves:
• Deamination : removal of the amino group from
excess amino acids used to make ammonia( toxic)
• Detoxification : conversion of ammonia to urea by Liver
(ornithine cycle or urea cycle)
Urea Cycle Liver p.g 680 Biological
Science

Jones,Jones,Ramesar.2011
Urea Cycle
Carbondioxide and
ammonia combines with
the amino acid Ornithine
to form another amino
acid citrulline

Aspartate (another amino

acid) is the second source
of ammonia. This
combines with Citrulline
to form Arginine(an amino
acid).
Arginine combines with
water and reforms
Ornithine in the process
forming Urea.
The Human Kidney
 The Human Kidney
Location: back of abdominal cavity about the level of the waist.

Function :The Kidney is the major excretory Organ

- Removal of metabolic waste
- Regulation of water content of body fluid
- Regulation oh pH of body fluid
- Produce erythropoietin (a hormone that stimulates production red blood cells in
response to falling levels of oxygen in tissue)

External Structure:
- Bean shaped
- Supplied by renal artery (directly from the aorta) and drained by the renal vein into
the vena cava
- Each kidney drains urine into a muscular bag called the bladder via the ureter. The
bladder then empties out urine via the urethra.
- Urination (micturition) initiated by an autonomic reflex as stretch receptors in the
bladder walls cause contraction of bladder and relaxation of the sphincter .
However learnt (Somatic) voluntary control allows for control of bladder release.
The Human Kidney
Internal Structure of The Kidney
 Intro Video Osmoregulation
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WtrYotjY
vtU
 Internal Structure of The Kidney
The kidney is divided into a
Outer Cortex :
-fibrous connective tissue (tough capsule)
-contains renal corpuscles and parts of the nephron

Inner medulla:
-contains tubular parts of the nephron and blood vessels
- renal pyramids, renal papilla
Renal Pelvis:
- Dilated upper end of the ureter collects urine from the
minor and major calyx
 The Nephron
The Nephron is the basic unit of structure and function of
the kidney
Cortical nephron :
- Found in the cortex
- Have short Loop of Henle extending just over the
medulla
Juxtamedullary nephron
- Corpuscles in the junction of the cortex and medulla
- Have long loops of Henle extending deep in the
medulla
 The Nephron
• Renal Corpuscle
• Proximal convoluted tubule
• Descending limb of Loop of Henle
• Ascending limb of Loop of Henle
• Distal convoluted tubule
• Collecting duct
 The Nephron-Blood Flow
-Blood enter the kidney from the renal artery which then branches into finer arteriole
-Afferent(to) arterioles: feed blood into the glomerulus (a network of capillaries in the
renal capsule) where the blood is filtered.
-Efferent(from) arterioles bring blood away from the glomerulus.
This then flows through a network of capillaries which surrounds the nephron Peritubular
capillary.
-The Vasa Recta is a network of capillaries running parallel to the loop of Henle and
collecting duct.
The Nephron-Blood Flow
 The Kidney Function
The kidney achieve its excretory function by three
processes
1.Ultrafiltration: driven by blood pressure. Large
molecules like proteins remain in the capillary -
Glomerulus
2.Selective Reabsorption: water and nutrients are
selectively reabsorbed and returned to the blood –
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
3.Secretion: solutes to be excreted Toxins, excess ions ,
waste are actively secreted into the filtrate.-Distal
convoluted Tubule & Collecting duct .The filtrate is
excreted as urine.
 Ultra-filtration- Renal Capsule
“Filtration under pressure”
• Blood entering the glomerulus is under high hydrostatic pressure
/pumping pressure ( from the aorta, renal artery , arterioles)
• The diameter of the afferent arterioles are larger than the efferent
arterioles . As a result water and small molecules are squeezed out
of the capillary, through the endothelium of the renal capsule and
into the capsule.
• Larger molecules e.g proteins, RBC’s , Platelets are not allowed to
filter through and so remain in the blood.
Filtration involves three layer:
– Endothelium of Blood Capillary
– Basement membrane of the blood Capillary
– Endothelium of the renal Capsule
A Renal Capsule( Bowman’s Capsule)

Jones,Jones,Ramesar.2011
 Ultra-filtration
Endothelium of Blood Capillary
– Thin and porous: It is made of thin (squamous cells) with pores between them
thus making these capillaries more permeable
– This layer is not a real barrier since most constituents of blood plasma can
pass through (including plasma proteins)

Basement Membrane of the capillary ( main filtration barrier)

-Epithelial cells rest on a basement membrane-a fibrous meshwork of
collegen fibres etc
-Permeable to water , small solutes but not Red blood cells, platelets or
proteins.(proteins are repelled by the negative electrical charge on the
fibres)

Epithelium of the renal capsule

- made of cells modified for filtration (Podocytes). These fit loosely
together forming slit pores/filtration slits.
Filtration Barrier
Ultra-Filtration

Jones,Jones,Ramesar.2011
Electron micrograph of the Filtration
Barrier
Electron micrograph of Podocytes
 Factors Affecting Glomerular Filtrate
Rate (GFR)
Glomerular Filtrate: the filtered liquid
– Is similar in composition to blood minus plasma protein(
glucose, amino acids ,vitamins, nitrogenous waste, hormones ,
water)
– Blood leaving the glomerulus has a lower water potential due to
increased plasma protein concentration and a reduced
hydrostatic pressure
GFR is Affected by
– Hydrostatic pressure of blood vs Hydrostatic pressure of the
glomorular filtrate
– Solute potential of blood vs Solute potential of the glomorular
filtrate
– Hormonal and nervous control of blood pressure (
vasoconstriction & vasodilation)
 Factors Affecting Glomerular Filtrate
Rate (GFR)
Solute Potential:
-The glomerular filtrate is hypotonic (less negative
solute potential)relative to the blood in the
glomerulus ( more negative solute potential). As a
result, the tendency is for water to move from
the filtrate in the capsule back into the
glomerulus.
-The difference in solute potential causes net flow
of water out of the capsule into the blood.
 Factors Affecting Glomerular Filtrate
Rate (GFR)
Hydrostatic Pressures:
-The difference in hydrostatic pressure ( high
pressure of blood flow at the afferent arteriole)
causes net flow of liquid into the capsule. The
hydrostatic pressure of the filtrate is less than
the hydrostatic pressure of the blood.
- NB. The difference in hydrostatic pressure is
greater than the difference in solute potentials
resulting in the overall net flow of filtrate into
the capsule. (The GFR is positive.)
Ultra Filtration
 Factors Affecting Glomerular Filtrate
Rate (GFR)

-Hormonal & Nervous control raise blood

pressure:
-Dilation of afferent arterioles (
vasodilation)
-Increasing resistance in efferent arterioles
( vasoconstriction)
 Ultrafiltration
Ultrafiltration produces about 125cm3 of the
glomerular filtrate per minute about 124cm3 is
reabsorbed.
Selective Reabsorption PCT

Jones,Jones,Ramesar.2011
 Selective Re-absorption
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
PCT is adapted for Selective re-absorption 80% of the GF
– Closeness to blood capillaries (easy diffusion)
– cuboidal cells with microvilli ( increase surface area)
– Tight junctions holding adjacent cells together ensuring that the
filtrate passes through the cell membrane where it can be
regulated and not just between cells.
– Modified outer membrane
• Folds :forming basal channels to increase surface area
• Numerous mitochondria near basement membrane (ATP for active
transport of sodium out of the cytoplasm of PCT into the blood)
• Sodium potassium pump: Active transport of sodium (at the basal
end) accommodates the concentration gradient which allows for
facilitated diffusion of Sodium from the GF (in the tubule) to the
cytoplasm of the cells of the PTC. NB Co transporters allow other
solutes e.g glucose to move in the cell along with the sodium. Sodium
is then pumped out of the cells basal channels by active transport to
maintain this reabsorption. (secondary Active Transport)
 Selective Reabsorption
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
80% of reabsorption occurs at PCT i.e All glucose, amino acids, vitamins,
hormones ,80% sodium, chloride, potassium and water
Glucose, amino acids and ions:
- By active transport using the sodium potassium pump, sodium is
pumped against its concentration gradient from the base region of the
PCT cells into the spaces formed by folding of the cell membrane.
– This sets up a diffusion gradient to move sodium ions into the PCT from
the filtrate into the cells . Other solutes e.g glucose also enters along
with sodium via cotransporters.
– Diffusion of these solutes then occurs from the cell via special
transporters into spaces between into the blood through the very
permeable blood capillaries which takes the solutes away from the
nephron.
This constant removal of solutes creates a diffusion gradient between
the filtrate ( in the PCT )and the cells of the PCT .
 Selective Reabsorption
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
80% Water is reabsorbed:
-GF at the beginning of the PCT is hypotonic to the blood plasma . Active removal of the
ions makes the solute potential of the tubular filtrate even more hypotonic (further
increasing the water potential)
-This results in water leaving by osmosis from the filtrate (lumen of the tubule) to the PTC
cells and then into the blood capillaries where it is carried away.
The constant removal of ions and water at a constant rate results in a tubular filtrate that is
the same water potential as the blood plasma.

40 -50% Urea is reabsorbed :

-Urea diffuses into the blood capillary and back into circulation

Small proteins are removed by Pinocytosis :

- a mode of endocytosis where small particles are brought into the cell. The cell membrane
invaginates encircling the particle which is then suspended within small vesicles.
- The vesicles at the base of the microvilli contain lysosomes which digest proteins to
amino acids. These amino acids may be used by the tubule cells or diffuse into the blood
capillaries .

Active Secretion of unwanted substances from the blood to tissue fluid around the tubule.
These substances e.g creatinine , move into the tubule and is removed as urine.
 Selective Reabsorption
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
 Selective Reabsorption
Proximal Convoluted Tubule

Please refer to pg 690

Biological Science
Figure 20.24a & b
Selective Reabsorption
Taylor, Green Stout ,1997
 The Loop of Henle
-Function of loop of Henle is to conserve water by creating a high
concentration of sodium ions and chloride ion in the tissue fluid of the
medulla.

-The longer the loop the more concentrated the urine produced
Adaption: the drier the habitat the longer and more concentrated the
Loop of Henle.
E.g. Kangaroo rat and Jerboa mouse produce urine 6 -7 times
more concentrated than human . They don’t need much water
as they get enough energy and metabolic water from cellular
respiration.
-The loop of Henle , together with vasa recta and collecting duct
creates and maintains an osmotic gradient in the medulla( from less
concentrated solution at the cortex (about 300 units )to a more
concentrated solution at the tip of the pyramids( about 1200 units).

-This causes water to leave the nephrons by osmosis creating

concentrated urine.
 Loop of Henle- Water conservation
Counter current multiplier
The Parts of the Loop of Henle:
– Descending limb: permeable to water and most
solutes (water leaves the tubule)
– Thin Ascending Limb: impermeable to water
– Thick Ascending Limb:
• impermeable to water
• Cell actively pumps ions out of the tubule e.g sodium ,
potassium, chloride etc
 Loop of Henle- Water conservation
Counter current multiplier
Thick Ascending limb:
-Impermeable to water and Actively pumps out sodium and chloride ions out of the
nephron. As a result, this:
-1. Increases the water potential of the fluid in the tubule
- 2. Decreases the water potential of cells outside in the medulla

Descending Limb:
-Permeable to water :
-1. Water in fluid coming from the PCT moves out of the tubule by osmosis to cell
in the medulla which have a low water potential. ( Since sodium and chloride ions
were actively pumped onto them by the ascending limb)
-2. This then enters into the blood through the Vasa Recta and is carried away
from the nephron. The blood in the vasa recta is similar in composition to the
medulla. The flow of blood is slow allowing for equilibrium to be reached at each
level.

Thin Ascending Limb:

-Fluid moving up the thin ascending limb is very concentrated . Ions easily diffuse out
of the tubule into the medulla tissue
The Loop of Henle

Jones,Jones,Ramesar.2011
 Loop of Henle- Water conservation
Counter current multiplier
Counter Current Multiplier:
Fluid in the loop of Henle flow in opposite directions in the two sides of the
loop. Down one side and up the next. The multiplier effect is seen as a
gradient from300 to 1200 units is created by a pump which is capable of
maintaining a difference of 200units between on side of the loop and the
other. The effect of the pump is multiplied by constant removal of sodium
and other ions from the ascending side and their replacement from the
proximal convoluted tubule on the descending side ( Biological sciences
p.g 692)
This maintains a concentration of solutes inside and outside the tubule at
the bottom of the loop (deep in the Medulla) where the highest solute
concentration are achieved.
Loop of Henle- Water conservation
Counter current multiplier
Loop of Henle- Water conservation
Counter current multiplier
 Re-absorption: Distal Convoluted
Tubule & Collecting Duct
-Fluid flowing in the Distal convoluted tubule and
collecting duct are fine tuned in terms of body
fluid composition.
-Cells of the DCT are adapted for water re-
absorption:
– Microvilli brush border like the PCT
– Numerous mitochondria at the base: ATP for active
transport of sodium (Sodium/ Potassium pump) out
of the tubule increasing it’s water potential relative to
the surrounding medulla tissue .This water potential
difference causes water to leave the tubule into
surrounding blood capillaries.
-Distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct are
also involved in controlling blood pH.
Reabsorption of water from the
Collecting Duct

Jones,Jones,Ramesar.2011
The Collecting duct carries fluid out of the
pyramids into the pelvis. As it moves water tends
to leave the tubule by osmosis through aquaporins
back into the blood Vasa Recta since the
surrounding medulla is increasingly concentrated.
- This further ensure that water is conserved by
the body. A small quantity of concentrated urine
is produced.

NB. Actual water loss is controlled by ADH. See

table 20.4
 Osmoregulatory function of the
Kidney
Involves the Kidney , pituitary gland and Hypothalamus by negative feedback
1. Osmoreceptors (sensory neurons) in the Hypothalamus detect water potential
of the blood ( stimuli)
2. If the water potential of the blood is too low ,the Hypothalamus stimulates the
pituitary gland via neurons to release ADH. (N.B ADH is made in the
hypothalamus but stored in the Pituitary gland ). This process is called
neurosecretion since it involves nerves to cause the release of hormones into the
blood.
3. Releases of ADH from the posterior pituitary gland adjusts the water
permeability of the DCT and collecting duct making them more permeable to
water by increasing water channels – aquaporins. More water is reabsorbed into
the blood and less water is lost in the urine.
4. Antidiretic hormone- ADH (a peptide, also called vasopressin) works using a
second messenger system (cyclicAMP)when attached to its receptor to simulate
the vesicles containing the channels to fuse to the cell membrane.
5. ADH also increases the permeability of the collecting duct to urea which diffuses
out of the urine into the medulla. This further increases the osmotic potential of
the medulla further enhancing the removal of water from the thin descending
limb.
 Osmoregulatory function of the
Kidney
ADH:
Increase water channels therefore allowing
more water removal from the GF by osmosis.
– The water is carried away by the blood . Urine is
concentrated.
– Failure to release sufficient ADH is called Diabetes
Incipidus.
Osmoregulatory function of the
Kidney
ADH and Water Reabsorption
 Tubular Secretion

Tubular secretion involve active transport of

materials from the peritubular capillaries into the
renal tubule and collecting duct. Usually only a
few substances are secreted which are present in
great excess, or are natural poisons for example
Hydrogen ions, creatinine, Urea, Ammonia,
Hormones and drugs.

Tubular secretion: also assist with maintenance of

blood pH ( 7.35-7.45)
 Urine for Diagnosis
• Glucose in urine indicates Diabetes (too much
glucose in blood makes the kidney unable to reabsorb all of
it).
• Protein in urine indicates:
– kidney damage e.g filtration barrier(glomeruli
damage) as well as
– high blood pressure which is associated with
heart disease. ( blood entering the glomerulus
under high pressure forces proteins out into the
renal capsule.
 Kidney Disease and Treatment
• Read section 20.9 Biological Science

Define the following :

Chronic Kidney Failure
Acute kidney Failure
Haemodialysis
Peritoneal dialysis
CAPD
 References
Ramesar, M. J. (2011). Biology Unit 2 for CAPE Examinations. Cambridge University
Press.

Taylor, D. G. (2012). Biological Science Third edition. Cambridge University Press.

Tylor,N., Dodds,J., Dodds,J.,Bradfield,P.(2002).A2 Level Biology. Pearson Limited

Edition.

Source: Boundless. “Tubular Secretion.” Boundless Anatomy and Physiology.

Boundless, 21 Jul. 2015. Retrieved 22 Jan. 2016
from https://www.boundless.com/physiology/textbooks/boundless-anatomy-and-
physiology-textbook/the-urinary-system-25/physiology-of-the-kidneys-
240/tubular-secretion-1175-412/

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