Instructional Strategies: Chapter Thirteen

Instructional Strategies
Chapter Thirteen
Educational Psychology: Developing Learners 6th edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Planning and carrying out instruction is part of an
interdependent network.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Educational Psychology: Developing Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Learners, sixth edition All rights reserved.
Overview of Instructional Strategies
 Instructional strategies can be subdivided into teacher-directed
and learner-directed instruction:
 Teacher-directed instruction
 Teacher sets up and directs most if not all aspects of class instruction,
objectives, etc.
 Learner-directed instruction
 Students have considerable say in the issues addressed in class as well as
how to address them.
 This type of instruction is more interactive, hands-on, and collaborative.

Instructional Planning
 An effective classroom does not just “happen.” It is the result of
considerable advance planning.
 Teachers with effective classrooms

 Identify the knowledge and skills they want students to acquire
 Determine an appropriate sequence of learning activities
 Develop activities that promote maximal learning and keep students
motivated and on-task

Identifying the Goals of Instruction
 An instructional goal is a desired long-term outcome of
instruction.
 An instructional objective is the desired outcome of a lesson or unit.

 Objectives should be what helps you and your students reach your
goal.
 Students should be told what the objectives of a lesson are.
 This helps them focus their attention, allocate their study time, and
more effectively use metacognitive strategies.

Formulating Useful
Goals & Objectives
 Goals and objectives should be as clear as possible and give us
concrete guidance.
 Include goals at varying degrees of complexity and sophistication
 Bloom’s taxonomy can help broaden our view of what students should
learn.
 Focus on what students should do, not on what teachers should do
 Describe the ultimate outcomes of instruction
 Identify both short-term and long-term goals
 Provide opportunities for students to identify their own goals and
objectives

Examples of Useful Objectives
 “The student will identify the main thesis or argument in a

scholarly paper.”
 “The students will demonstrate effective ways of kicking,

dribbling, and passing the ball.”
 "Given a sentence written in the future tense, the student will be

able to rewrite the sentence in the past tense with no errors.”

Developing a Lesson Plan
 A lesson plan should include the following:
 The goal(s) or objective(s) of the lesson
 Instructional strategies and the sequence in which they will be used
 Instructional materials required
 Assessment method(s) planned
 Reviewing a lesson plan allows the teacher to determine if goals or

objectives are (for example) realistic, too simplistic, etc.

Conducting a Task Analysis
 A task analysis can help break down a large instructional task.
 It analyzes the components of the task and identifies the specific knowledge,
behaviors, or cognitive processes necessary to master the skill.
 The three general approaches to a task analysis are:

 Behavioral analysis: Identify the specific behaviors required to perform a
task
 Subject matter analysis: Break down the subject matter into specific topics,
concepts, and principles
 Information processing analysis: Specify the cognitive processes involved in
the task

Three Ways of Analyzing a Task
Information Processing
Behavioral Analysis Subject Matter Analysis
Analysis
Driving a standard Reading music Solving a word problem

transmission
• Turning on ignition • Treble & bass clefs • Defining the problem
• Steering • Measures • Identifying appro-
•Shifting gears • Whole, half, & quarter priate operations
•Braking notes • Applying operations

Approaches to Instruction
 Expository Instruction
 An approach in which information is presented in more or less the
same form in which students are expected to learn it
 Hands-On Practice Activities
 An approach where students are actually doing something rather
than just hearing or reading about it
 Interactive and Collaborative Approaches
 An approach where the classroom is based on social interaction
between students

Expository Instruction
 Basic principles that improve the effectiveness of expository

instruction:
 An advance organizer: Introduction to a lesson that provides an
overall organizational theme for the lesson
 Connections to prior knowledge
 An organized presentation
 The use of various signals used to draw students’ attention to
important parts
 The use of visual aids
 Appropriate pacing of the lesson
 The use of summaries that help students review and organize
material and identify main ideas

Methods & Formats of
Expository Instruction
 Lectures and Textbooks
 Students must be cognitively active (paying attention, using elaboration, etc.).
 Mastery Learning
 Students must learn one topic thoroughly before moving to the next topic.
 Direct Instruction
 Teachers use a variety of techniques (questioning, guided and independent
practice, explanations) to promote learning of basic skills.
 Computer-based instruction
 Instruction is provided via computer technology.

Hands-On & Practice Activities
 Discovery Learning
 Students develop an understanding of a topic through firsthand
interaction with the environment.
 Students are required to construct knowledge themselves rather than
just “receive” it.
 In-class Activities
 Activities should clearly define task and purpose, capture students’
attention and interest, and accommodate diversity.

 Computer Simulations and Applications
 Promote higher-level thinking within the context of gamelike or
authentic tasks
 E.g., dissecting a frog via a computer program (simulation) or using
word processing programs for an assignment (application)
 Homework
 Assignments should be used primarily for diagnostic purposes.
 Assignments should provide the information and structure students need
to complete it without assistance from others.
 Teachers should give a mixture of required and voluntary assignments.

 Authentic Activities
 Classroom activities similar to those students are apt to encounter in
the outside world
 Examples include:
 Constructing maps of the local community
 Writing a letter to the editor of the local newspaper
 Identifying various food chains in the local forest
 Comparing different newspaper accounts of a current event to
identify possible biases in reporting

Interactive & Collaborative
Approaches
 Includes teacher questions, class discussions, reciprocal teaching,
cooperative learning, and peer tutoring
 Teacher questions
 Provide information about students’ prior knowledge and possible
misconceptions
 Focus students’ attention
 Assess how much learning is actually occurring

Teacher Questions
 Teacher questions can come in two forms:
 Lower-level questions require students to express what they’ve

learned in essentially the same way they learned it.
 Higher-level questions require students to engage in higher-
level thinking and encourage more elaboration and knowledge
construction.

Approaches
 Class Discussions
 Guidelines for promoting effective classroom discussions:
 Focus on topics that lend themselves to multiple perspectives,
explanations, or approaches
 Make sure students have enough prior knowledge about a topic to
discuss it intelligently
 Create a classroom atmosphere conducive to open debate and
constructive evaluation of ideas
 Use small-group discussions to encourage all students to participate
 Provide a structure to guide the discussion
 Give students guidance about how to behave
 Provide closure at the end of the discussion

Approaches
 Reciprocal Teaching
 An approach to teaching reading and listening comprehension in
which students take turns asking teacher-like questions of
classmates
 Models effective reading and learning strategies
 Supported by empirical research

Approaches
 Cooperative Learning
 This approach to instruction has students work with a small group of
peers to achieve a common goal and help one another learn.
 When designed and used correctly, cooperative learning activities
are very effective.
 Students at lower ability levels show higher academic achievement, as
do females and other minority students.
 Students often show higher self-efficacy, express more intrinsic
motivation to learn material, and exhibit more self-regulation.

Making Cooperative Learning
Effective
 Form groups of students who are likely to work together productively

 Provide clear goals toward which groups should work
 Assign each group member a specific task or role within the group
 Make individual students accountable for their achievement
 Serve as a resource and monitor group interactions
 Provide critical information and insights only when a group is unlikely or unable
to provide such information and insights for itself.
 Make students individually accountable for their achievement, but also reinforce
group success
 Ask students to evaluate their effectiveness in working as a group

Approaches
 Peer Tutoring
 An approach to instruction in which students who have
mastered a topic teach those who have not
 May lead to greater academic gains than either mastery learning
or traditional whole-class instruction
 Benefits both the tutor and the student

Promoting Effective Peer Tutoring
 Make sure tutors have mastered the material they are teaching and use
sound instructional techniques
 Provide a structure for students’ interactions
 Be careful that your use of higher-achieving students to tutor lower-
achieving students is not excessive or exploitative
 Use peer tutoring to help students with special education needs
 Make sure that all students have experiences tutoring their classmates

Taking Student Diversity
into Account
 The instructional strategy (or strategies) you select will

often depend on students’ ages, developmental level, and
prior knowledge and skills.
 Some strategies adapt themselves well to a variety of student

abilities and needs.


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Instructional Strategies

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

 Teachers with effective classrooms

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

 An instructional objective is the desired outcome of a lesson or unit.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

 “The student will identify the main thesis or argument in a

 “The students will demonstrate effective ways of kicking,

 "Given a sentence written in the future tense, the student will be

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

 Reviewing a lesson plan allows the teacher to determine if goals or

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

 The three general approaches to a task analysis are:

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Driving a standard Reading music Solving a word problem

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

 Basic principles that improve the effectiveness of expository

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

 Lower-level questions require students to express what they’ve

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

 Form groups of students who are likely to work together productively

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

 The instructional strategy (or strategies) you select will

 Some strategies adapt themselves well to a variety of student

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

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