Richard T.

Wright

Environmental
Science
Tenth Edition

Chapter 2
Ecosystems: What They Are

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc.

 Plum Island

• A 9-mile long barrier

island.
• Insert shows the
northern, developed end
of the island.
• A mix of natural and
degraded ecosystems.
A pitch pine/false heather woodland association
on Plum Island
 Ecosystems: What Are They?

• Ecosystems: A Description
• The Structure of Ecosystems
• From Ecosystems to Global Biomes
• The Human Factor
 Some Terms and Definitions

• Ecosystems: A grouping of plants, animals, and

microbes occupying an explicit unit of space and
interacting with each other and their
environment.
• Ecotone: Transitional region between different
ecosystems.
 How Ecosystems Are Formed

Abiotics (moisture and temperature)

predict
Plants (+ moisture = forest)
(temperature = forest type)
predict
Animals (lynx or bobcat)
 Ecosystem Types in the United States

• Coasts and oceans

• Farmlands
• Forests
• Fresh waters
• Grasslands and shrub lands
• Urban and suburban areas
 Ecosystems: A Description

• Biotic communities: grouping or assemblage of

plants, animals, and microbes.
• Species: different kinds of plants, animals, and
microbes in the community.
• Populations: number of individuals that make up
the interbreeding, reproducing group.
• Associations: how a biotic community fits into
the landscape.
 Ecotones on Land

• Shares many of the

species and
characteristics of both
ecosystems
• May also include unique
conditions that support
distinctive plant and
animal species
 Terrestrial-to-Aquatic-System Ecotone

• Shares many of the

species and
characteristics of both
ecosystems
• May also include unique
conditions that support
distinctive plant and
animal species
 Diversity

• Diversity is defined as the variety within

ecosystems (Wilson 1992:393 in Folke et al.,
1996).
– Abiotic
– Biotic
• Jet Plane Analogy
– Human response to diversity!!
How Habitat and Animal Diversity Are
Related

Diversity = number of different species

Animal Diversity
Interrelationships Between Ecosystem Components
“Everythingisconnectedtoeverythingelse”

Interrelationships Example

abiotic x abiotic temperature and rainfall = climate

abiotic x biotic water temperature predicts fish species

biotic x abiotic human pollution of the environment

biotic x biotic predator/prey relationships, life cycles,

trophic levels
 The Structure of Ecosystems

• Trophic categories
• Trophic relationships: food chains, food webs,
trophic levels.
• Nonfeeding relationships: symbiosis
• Abiotic factors
Autotrophs = Producers = Self feeders
 Consumers = Heterotrophs

• Primary consumers =
herbivores = rabbit: eat
plant material
• Secondary consumers =
carnivores = predators =
coyotes: prey are
herbivores and other
animals.
 Consumers = Heterotrophs

• Parasites = predator = either plant or animal:

prey are plants or animals.
Detritus Food Web
Trophic Categories
Trophic Relationships: Food Chain

Third-order Consumer

Secondary Consumer

Primary Consumer

Producer
 Match Organisms with Trophic Level(s)
Trophic Levels
Organisms Producer Primary Secondary Third-
Consumer Consumer Order
Consumer

Plants X

Rabbits X
Snakes X X

Owls X X
Bacteria X X X X
Match Trophic Categories with Trophic Level(s)

Trophic Levels
Category Producer Primary Secondary Third-Order
Consumer Consumer Consumer

Autotrophs X

Herbivores X
Carnivores X X

Omnivores X X X
Parasites X X X X
Trophic Relationships Among Producers and
Consumers
Food Webs = Food Chain Interrelationships
Trophic Level Energy Flow

Third-order Consumer 1Kcal

- 10x

Secondary Consumer 10 Kcal

- 10x
Primary Consumer 100 Kcal
- 100x

Producer 10,000 Kcal

Biomass Pyramid
Trophic Levels: Pyramid of Biomass

5 Which level is occupied by:

producers?
4
primary consumers?
3 secondary consumers?
third-order consumers?
2

1
Trophic Levels: Pyramid of Energy

5
Which level is occupied by:
4 producers?
3 primary consumers?
secondary consumers?
2 third-order consumers?
1
Nutrient Cycles and Energy Flow
 Nonfeeding (Symbiotic) Relationships

• + And + = Mutualism. Both species benefit by the

interaction between the two species. Honey bee
and flower
• + And 0 = Commensalism. One species benefits
from the interaction and the other is unaffected.
Remora fish and shark
 Nonfeeding (Symbiotic) Relationships

• + And - = One species benefits from the interaction

and the other is adversely affected. Examples are
predation, parasitism, and disease.
• - And - = Competition. Both species are adversely
affected by the interaction.
Resource Partitioning: Reducing Competition
 Abiotic Factors

• Law of Limiting Factors: “Every species (both

plant and animal) has an optimum range, zones
of stress, and limits of tolerance with respect to
every biotic factor.”
Survival Curves Illustrate Law of Limiting
Factors
 Application of the Law of Limiting Factors

• Compare the “tolerance” differences for a trout

and a catfish using water:
– temperature (cold or warm).
– oxygen concentration (high or low).
– salinity (high or low).
Oxygen Tolerance Curves for Two Different Fish
Species

Diagram the temperature tolerance curves for each fish species.

 From Ecosystems to Global Biomes

• The role of climate

• Microclimate and other abiotic factors
• Biotic factors
• Physical barriers
Climate and Major Biomes
Identify Biomes A to E Based on Temperature
and Precipitation Levels: Answers Next Slide
High
A D

B E

Low Precipitation High

 Answers to Previous Slide
• A has high temperature and low moisture = hot desert
• B has low temperature and low moisture = cold desert
(tundra with permafrost)
• C has medium temperatures and moisture = grassland
• D has high temperature and moisture = rain forest
• E has low temperature and high precipitation = arctic
poles
Effects of Latitude and Altitude
Microclimates
 The Human Presence

• Three revolutions
– Neolithic
– Industrial
– Environmental
• Red Sky in the Morning by
James Gustave
• The Inconvenient Truth by
Al Gore
 How Humans Modify Their Physical
Environments to Meet Their Needs
• Produce abundant food
• Control water flow rate and direction
• Overcome predation and disease
• Construct our own ecosystems
• Overcome competition with other species
 End of Chapter 2

PPT by Clark E. Adams