Verbal Analysis and Communication

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 Why we need to communicate with others?

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 Superiors Peers Subordinates

Analyse Decision Communicate the

Situation(s) Decision(s)

WAC
VAC

 Understanding and analysing a situation  Logical Thinking

 Presentation of analysis and  Analytical Skills
recommendation(s)  Skills of
Communication
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What is Communication? What are various elements of communication?

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 “Human communication is a dynamic process in which
people attempt to share their thoughts with other
people through the use of symbols in particular
settings” (Samovar, Porter, and McDaniel, 2012:29)

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 ENCODING
Shall we Shall we
order Pizza? CHANNEL order Pizza? DECODING
MESSAGE

SOURCE RECIEVER

NOISE NOISE

FEEDBACK

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 Characteristics of Communication
• Communication is dynamic process

• Communication is symbolic

• Communication is Contextual – location, occasion, time, number

of participants

• Most communication behaviour is learned

• Communication has a consequence

Communication is a complex behaviour

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 Culture
• Samovar, Porter, and McDaniel (2009) referred “culture is ubiquitous, complex,
all pervasive, and—most of all—difficult to define.”

• Culture refers to learned and shared values, beliefs, and behaviours common to a
particular group of people (Orbe and Bruess, 2005).

• Culture has been defined as “the collective programming of the mind which distin
guishes the members of one group or category of people from another” (Hofstede,
1991).

• “Culture consists of how we relate to other people, how we think, how we behave,
and how we view the world” (Rodriguez, 1999:20).

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 Components of Culture • Understanding the
• Transmit important Universe
message about culture • Natural Phenomena
• Help explain contemporary Religion • What to die for
perceptions held by • How dwell among
members of a culture other people

Values
History
Social
Organizations • Critical to the maintenance
of culture
• Offer a set of ‘instructions’
• Represent various social units of about what is important
a culture and how should we live
• Establish communication our life
networks Language
• Regulate norms of personal,
familial, and social conduct • Vehicle of Cultural
transmission
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 Characteristics of Culture

• Culture is learned – formal (teaching) and informal (interaction/observation/imitation)

• Culture is transmitted from generation to generation

• Culture is based on symbols

• Culture is dynamic

• Culture is an integrated system

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Dominant culture: exercises the greatest influence
on the beliefs, values, perceptions, communication
patterns, and customs of the culture.

JGBS
A Subculture is a group that lives differently from,
but not opposed to, the dominant culture. A JSLS
subculture is a culture within a culture. JGPP

Counter culture is a subculture that opposes

the dominant culture JSBF

JAC

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• Enculturation
• The process by which an individual learns the norms and values of a culture
through unconscious repetition.
• The process by which individuals learn their home culture
• Culture is learned through communication

• Acculturation
• Cultural modification of an individual, group, or people by adapting to or
borrowing traits from another culture is called acculturation.
• Process of acquiring other cultural approaches
• Communication shapes culture

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 Ethnocentrism
Violation of Cultural
cultural rules stereotyping
and customs

Cultural Barriers

Assumed Misinterpretation
similarity of codes

Prejudice
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 Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

(Hofstede, 2011)
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Power Distance (PD)
• This refers to the degree of inequality that exists – and is accepted – among people
with and without power. A high PD score indicates that society accepts an unequal
distribution of power, and that people understand "their place" in the system. Low
PD means that power is shared and well dispersed. It also means that society
members view themselves as equals.

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Individualism (IDV)

• This refers to the strength of the ties people have to others within the community.
A high IDV score indicates loose connections. In countries with a high IDV score
there is a lack of interpersonal connection, and little sharing of responsibility
beyond family and perhaps a few close friends. A society with a low IDV score
would have strong group cohesion, and there would be a large amount of loyalty
and respect for members of the group. The group itself is also larger and people
take more responsibility for each other's well being.

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Masculinity (MAS)

• This refers to how much a society sticks with, and values, traditional male and
female roles. High MAS scores are found in countries where men are expected to
be "tough," to be the provider, and to be assertive. If women work outside the
home, they tend to have separate professions from men. Low MAS scores do not
reverse the gender roles. In a low MAS society, the roles are simply blurred. You
see women and men working together equally across many professions. Men are
allowed to be sensitive, and women can work hard for professional success.

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Uncertainty/Avoidance Index (UAI)
• This relates to the degree of anxiety that society members feel when in uncertain
or unknown situations. High UAI scoring nations try to avoid ambiguous
situations whenever possible. They are governed by rules and order and they seek
a collective "truth." Low UAI scores indicate that the society enjoys novel events
and values differences. There are very few rules, and people are encouraged to
discover their own truth.

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Long Term Orientation (LTO)

• This refers to how much society values long-standing – as opposed to short-term –

traditions and values. In countries with a high LTO score, delivering on social
obligations and avoiding "loss of face" are considered very important.

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Indulgence versus Restraint

• Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and
natural human desires related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for
a society that controls gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict
social norms.

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 High-context and Low-context Cultures

(Hall, 1976)
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 High-context and Low-context Cultures

• High-context cultures - in which the rules of communication are primarily

transmitted through the use of contextual elements (i.e., body language, a person's
status, and tone of voice) and are not explicitly stated.

• Low-context cultures - information is communicated primarily through language

and rules are explicitly spelled out.

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 Gender and Communication

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 Male - Female Men - Women

Biologically determined Socially constructed / learned

(Bate,1992)
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 Raised with invisible
Each gender is a rules of conduct Men and women behave
‘culture’ in itself according to two separate sets
of rules about what is ‘right’

Behaviour that seems natural and

appropriate to one gender can
seem hurtful / wrong to others

(Heim – The Invisible Rules: Men, Women, and Teams)

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Men and women view the purpose of They have different needs, goals, and
conversations differently values in the way they communicate

‘take-care’ ‘take-charge’

Relationship oriented Goal oriented

Tool to enhance social connections Tool to exert dominance and

and create relationships achieve tangible outcomes

More expressive, tentative, and More assertive, to-the

polite in conversation point, power-hungry

Affectionate, emotional, friendly, Dominant, forceful, aggressive, self-

sympathetic, sensitive, and sentimental confident, rational, and unemotional

(Basow and Rubenfield, 2003; Gray, 1992; Schneider, 2005;Tannen, 1990; Welbourne, 2005)
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 Who talks more??

Private-speaking (the wordy Public-speaking (the talkative

women and the mute man) man and the silent woman)

Public-speaking (the talkative man and the silent woman) Vs

Private-speaking (the wordy women and the mute man)
Report talk Vs Rapport talk

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 Gender – Nonverbal Cues

Facial Expressions

Paralanguage

Physical space

Touch

Posture

Gestures

Eye contact

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Gender and Non-Verbal communication

• Gender-role norms – Role conformity (e.g. smiling differences in men

and women)
• Gender-linked roles : prescriptions for a gendered division
• Gender affirmation – some gendered-related nonverbal displays is
the simple need to signal gender to oneself and others
• Response to a situation
• Social knowledge and learning
• Gender stereotypes

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 Nonverbal Communication Non-linguistic communication

Involves all those nonverbal stimuli in a

communication setting that are generated by both
the source and his or her use of the environment,
and that have potential message value for the
source and/or receiver (Samovar, Porter, McDaniel, and
Roy, 2011).

Intentional and unintentional messages

Reciprocal relationship between verbal

and nonverbal messages
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 Ideas, attitudes,
feelings, and
emotions

Expressing Substituting for

internal states words
Functions of Nonverbal
Communication

Repeating the
Creating Identity
Message

Regulating
Interaction

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 Potential
Problems
Nonverbal communication
can be ambiguous

Multiple factors influence

nonverbal communication

The study of nonverbal

communication includes
cultural universals

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 Nonverbal Communication and Culture

‘Most nonverbal communication isn’t instinctual, but is

learned in the process of socialization’ (Wood, 2011).

‘What emotions are felt, how they are expressed, and how
they are understood are maters of culture’ (Rosenblatt, 1997).
CULTURE

What nonverbal actions to display

The meaning of those actions

(Ekman, 1975; Anderson, 2011)
The backdrop of those actions

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 Nonverbal Communication

Primarily produced by the In combination with the

body setting

Appearance
Movement Space
Facial expressions Time
Eye contact Silence
Touch
Paralanguage

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 Initial attraction

Precursor to actual
interaction

Perception of C
attractiveness U
L
T
U
Judgements
R
regarding beauty E

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 Skin colour First characteristic people
notice

Attire is often used to help establish one’s

cultural identity

Economic status
Education
Social status
Clothing Moral standards
Athletic interests

Belief system (political, philosophical,

religious)
Levels of sophistication

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 BODY MOVEMENT

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 People all over the world use their hands, head, and bodies to
communicate expressively

The study of how movement communicates is called kinesics

Kinesics cues – visible body shifts and movements that can send both
intentional and unintentional messages

Postures Gestures

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 Keep in mind!

• In most instances the messages the body generates operate in combination with
other messages.

• While body language is universal, the meanings it evokes are attached to culture

• It is often difficult to control kinesics behaviour

• All people use movements to communicate – culture teaches them how to use and
interpret the movements

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 The body posture may be as important as the face in
communicating emotions (Loygren, 2004)

Posture can offer insight into a culture’s value system

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UwqwC-k4dQk

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 The way people sit is often a reflection of important cultural characteristics

West
Germany, Sweden, Taiwan
Sign of rudeness and poor
Being casual
manners

A sign of poor upbringing

Ankle-to-knee leg crossing

Saudi Arabia, Egypt,
Singapore, Thailand

Insult

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• Women often hold their arms closer to their bodies then men do

• Usually keep their legs close together

• Their posture is more restricted and less relaxed than the posture of males

• Status, power, affiliation

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 GESTURES

Nonverbal ‘vocabulary’ that people use

intentionally or unintentionally

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 Australia and West Africa
US – positive connotations – rude gesture

Rude – China, Arab World,

West – no negative Much of Asia
connotations

Okay – West Hostility – Arab

Money – Japan, Korea I’ll kill you - Tunisian

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 Those movements whose meaning is directly
linked to a particular culture.
Idiosyncratic Gestures
These gestures do not have the same meaning
when used in other cultures.

Beckoning Gestures
e.g. China, Japan

Agreement Gestures

Frequency and intensity Italians, Latinos, Africans, Middle East – more

of Gestures demonstrative and employ gestures with greater
frequency and intensity

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 Members of many Asian cultures,
Germans

Uncomfortable with bold hand gestures

Lack of manners and restraint

“Hands should be used with calculated dignity”

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 Agreement in Japan
Beckoning

Beckoning in Germany, much of

Scandinavia
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 F A C I A L E X P R E S S I O N S

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 Face is central to the process of communication (Ferraro, 2006)

Assigned face / Basic face The one you are born with

Face that can be manipulated To signal or to hide your true

at will feelings

Face that is changed by your surroundings

and messages you receive

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 Can reflect a course of action

Coney messages of ‘social submissiveness and

dominance’

Tell others how interested you are

Signal your degree of involvement

Indicate your level of comprehension

Divulge whether or not your reactions are spontaneous or

controlled
(Keating, 1994; Leathers, 1992)
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Cultural expectations and norms often dictate when, where, how, and to
whom facial expressions are displayed (Porter and Samovar, 1998).

Within a culture, there are groups and co-cultures that use facial
expressions differently from the dominant culture.

Many Asian countries restrain and supress facial expressions

Restraint of strong feelings (anger, irritation, sadness, and love or

happiness) is considered to be a sign of maturity and wisdom (Sue and Sue,
1990).

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 CONTACT

Eye contact and gaze are essential too the study of human communication

Express emotions

Monitor feedback

Indicate degrees of attentiveness and interest

Regulate the flow of conversation

Influence changes in attitude

Define power and status relationships

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 Significant to the communication process because of the number of
messages they can send

Eye contact is directly related to the culture

Direct eye contact Nominal eye contact

cultures cultures

Middle Eastern Korean

French Japanese
German African
Dominant US East Indian

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Direct gaze signals a positive
connection from one person to
another.

Communicates caring and common Prolonged eye contact – discourteous and

courtesy. disrespectful
Japan
Fail to use direct eye contact – showing lack of
interest, trying to hide something, being deceitful
Avoid eye contact – as a sign of respect
Making eye contact with a person who is older or of
higher status – a sign of disrespect / aggression Asian, Latino, and Caribbean cultures
Africa
Women and men who are strangers avoid eye
contact out of modesty and respect for religious
rules The amount of eye contact depends on one’s social
Egypt position
India
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 Arab

Very direct eye contact between same-sex

communicators
Truthfulness
Sign of honesty
German True interest in the
conversation

Avoiding direct eye contact with superiors is a sign

of respect

Women are much more visually oriented than are

men (reference)

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 Touch, often considered the most fundamental of all our senses, is a
primitive and indispensable form of communication

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 Accidental Touch Sexual touch

Professional touching Love-intimacy touches

Social politeness Friendship touches

Every culture has a well-defined set of meanings connected with touching.

Each culture defines who can touch whom, on what parts of the body, and
under what circumstances (References)

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 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RMk1ZPtCqw8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I-gsrE6K-U4

A high frequency of touching is prevalent among the people of Eastern

Europe, Spain, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and Israel

Women tend to welcome touch more than do men when it is from the
same sex, and they initiate touch behaviour more than men (Reference)

Touching is contextual and often carries multiple meanings

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 Paralanguage

Concerned with… Includes such things as…

the communicative characteristics Giggles, laughter, accents, groans, sighs,

of the voice pitch, tempo, volume, and resonance

how people use their voices

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 Emotional state

Social class
How a person’s voice sounds can influence
perceptions related to the individual’s… Credibility

Comprehension

Personality (Knapp and Hall, 2010)

Height Regional background

Paralanguage cues assist you in drawing
conclusions about an individual’s… Weight
Educational level
Age
Intelligence (Richmond, McCracken,
and Payne, 1991)
Race
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 Paralanguage

Vocal qualities Vocal characterizers Vocal segregates

Volume Laughing “uh-huh”
Rate Crying “shh”
Pitch
Moaning “uh”
Tempo
Whining “oooh”
Resonance Yawning “um”
Tone
“mmmh”
Pronunciation
“hmmm”
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 Great deal of volume Connotes strength and sincerity
Commanding tone Projects authority and self-confidence
Softer voice Suggests weakness and deceitfulness

Indication of good breeding and

Softer voice
education

Great deal of volume A sign of anger

Raising one’s voice A lack of self-control

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 Tend to have louder volume,
lower pitch, and less inflection

Features that conform to

cultural view of men as assertive
and emotionally controlled

Tend to have higher pitch, softer

volume, and more inflection

Cultural views of women as

emotional and deferential

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 Vocal characteristics are vocalizations that convey a learned
meaning for members of a specific culture

Yawning in public Considered rude France, Argentina

Whistling during Message of disapproval and Europe

public performances ridicule

Vocal Segregates are sounds that are audible but are not actual words

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 S
P
A PROXEMICS
C
E
Personal space
&
Seating
D
Furniture arrangement
I
S
T
A
N
C
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P
E …is that area you occupy and call your own
R
S
O
As the owner of this area, you usually
N decide who may enter and who may not.
A
L

S
P
A Invisible bubble of space – which expands and contracts depending on…
C our relationship to those around us our cultural background
E our emotional state the activity we are performing
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 12’+
Public
4’ – 12’
Social Public presentations
18”- 4’
Personal
0-18”
Intimate

Business and social

gatherings
Very personal relationships
Family and close friends
Reach out and touch the person
Little chance of physical contact
Voice – in the form of ‘whisper’
Speak in normal voice
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Cultures that stress individualism and privacy generally
demand more space than do collective cultures.

England, US, Sweden, Arabs, Latin Americans,

Germany, Australia Egyptians

(Triandis, 1994)
Extended distance(s) demonstrate difference and esteem.

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 …can be a powerful form of nonverbal
communication
S
E
A
T
I
N
G
https://www.abc.net.au/news/2010-01-15/israel-
apologises-for-turkeys-public-humiliation/1210152

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 Seating arrangements reflect
status and role distinctions

Seating in formal event is

determined based on hierarchy

Seat on the right is considered

as place of honour (in Korea)

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 A
F
R
U
R
R
N
N
G
I
E
T
M
U
E
R
N
E
T

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 Striking the balance between self and one’s physical
feng shui
environment brings good health, happiness, and wealth

USA Furniture is often arranged to achieve privacy and

interpersonal isolation

Japan Offices are usually open, shared with many colleagues, and
the furnishings are, like the workers, placed in close
proximity

French, Italians, Furniture in the living room pointing towards the TV set -
Mexicans rude

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 Striking the balance between self and one’s physical
feng shui
environment brings good health, happiness, and wealth

USA Furniture is often arranged to achieve privacy and

interpersonal isolation

Japan Offices are usually open, shared with many colleagues, and
the furnishings are, like the workers, placed in close
proximity

French, Italians, Furniture in the living room pointing towards the TV set -
Mexicans rude

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 TIME

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 Culture plays a substantial role in how you perceive and manipulate time
in order to communicate different messages.

Informal time Monochronic and polychronic

Punctuality Pace

Rules about time

Lack of punctuality (…) don’t care about the person / event

(…) lazy, disorganized, careless,
disrespectful, carefree

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 How late is “late”?

Britain and America 5 minutes for business appointment

Arab Countries, Spain, 15 – 30 minute

Italy
Britain and America 5 – 15 minutes to dinner invitation

Italian 2 hours

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 The time usage is usually determined by the status relationships between
the people involved
Japan

Punctuality is not considered a virtue

Saudi Arabia

Often late for appointments, meetings, and social engagements

Africa

Promptness is taken for granted…in fact, it’s almost an obsession

Germany

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 “Haste manages all things badly”
“Rush hour”
P
“don’t waste so much time” “You don’t have to get there first, you
just have to know hoe to get there”
A
“hurry up and finish the homework”

“Time is money” C “with time and patience the mulberry

leaf becomes a silk gown”
E

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 Monochronic (M-Time) and Polychronic (P-Time)

Link between culture and Approaches to perceiving

time and utilizing time

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 Linear
Time is being tangible
M Sequential
Segmented
Rationed and controlled through the
T use of schedules
Scarce resource
I
Aiming to do only one thing at any
M one time
E ‘spent’
US
‘saved’
Germany
‘wasted’
Austria
‘lost’
Sweden
Norway
England
Finland
Canada
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 Human relationships, not tasks
are important
P
Arab, African, Indian, Latin
T American, South Asian, Southeast
I Asian

M
Use of time needs to be flexible
E
Time is less tangible

Interact with more than one person

/ do more than one thing at a time

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Periods of silence affect Provides an interval in an
interpersonal communication ongoing interaction

Time to think
Indication of…
Check / suppress an emotion
Agreement
Encode a lengthy response
Anger
Lack of interest Inaugurate another line of
thought
Injured feelings

Contempt

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 Knowing when not to speak!

A silent reaction to a business proposal…

NEGATIVE
American, German, French,
Southern European, Arab

Inner peace and wisdom Eastern tradition

come only through silence

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Monochronic Time People
• Do one thing at a time
• Concentrate on the job
• Take time commitments (deadlines
schedules) seriously
• Are low context and need
information
• Are committed to the job
• Adhere to plans
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Polychronic Time People
• Do many things at once
• Easily distracted and subject to
interruption
• Consider time commitments an
objective to be achieved, if possible
• Are high context and already have
information
• Are committed to people and human
relationships
• Change plans often and easily
88
Monochronic Time People
• Are concerned about not disturbing
others; follow rules of privacy
• Are concerned about not disturbing
others; follow rules of privacy
• Show great respect for private
property; seldom borrow or lend
• Emphasize promptness
• Are accustomed to short-term
relationships
(Hall and Hall, 1990)
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Polychronic Time People
• Are more concerned with people close
to them (family, friends, close business
associates) than with privacy
• Borrow and lend things often and easily
• Base promptness on the relationship
• Have tendency to build lifetime
relatioships
89
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 Feedback

• Most important and most challenging communication skill is

the ability to give and receive feedback effectively.

• Giving/receiving feedback requires courage, skill,

understanding and respect for self and others.

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 • Whenever we respond to another person, we are giving
the person feedback.

The way a person looks

His or her actions

Something he or she said

Or a combination of factors

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 What is Feedback?

• Feedback is conceptualized as information provided by an agent (e.g.

teacher, peer, book, parent, self, experience) regarding aspects of
one’s performance or understanding (Hattie and Timperley, 2007).

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 Reduces Guides Effective
Ineffective Feedback
Stops Motivates behaviours
behaviours
Reinforces

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 Why feedback matters?

Creating a productive work environment

Improve the performance

An opportunity to share your observations

Feedback Contribute to other’s learning and development

Motivate and inspires others

Strengthen your rapport with colleagues

Foster open communication

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Many people feel uncomfortable giving and receiving feedback

Will make the recipient dislike you

Will strain your relationship

Other person cannot handle the feedback

Giving Know of previous instances when the recipient resisted
feedback feedback
What is in it for me?

Fear an awkward or even volatile situation

Feel that the feedback won’t be helpful

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 What makes feedback effective?

• It is shared frequently and in context

• It aims to achieve a specific outcome

• It is realistic in its expectations

• It shows respect for the recipient

• It is a two-way conversation

• It is expressed as a point of view, rather than an absolute truth

VAC JGBS
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Sprig 2019
 When to give feedback?

Feedback is most likely to have a positive, lasting effect when its focus is on
behaviour that the recipient is able to change and its delivery is well timed.

• Identify the right situation

• When good work / behaviour deserves to be recognized

• When the likelihood of improving a person’s skills is high – the opportunity to use
those skills is imminent

• When the person is already expecting feedback

• When the problem can’t be ignored

VAC JGBS
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Sprig 2019
• Avoid giving feedback in the following circumstances

• When you do not have all the information about a given incident

• When the only feedback you can offer concerns factors that the recipient cannot
easily change or control

• When the person who needs the feedback appears to be highly emotional or
especially vulnerable immediately after a difficult event

• When you do not have the time and patient

• When the feedback is based on your personal preference

• When you not yet formulated a possible solution to help the feedback recipient
move forward

VAC JGBS
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• Time the feedback

• Context matter as much as content

• Soon after you observe a behaviour you want to discuss

• You and the recipient will communicate most effectively about the situation when it is
fresh in your minds.

• Choose a time to provide feedback when the recipient can give you his / her
undivided attention.

VAC JGBS
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• Feedback can be made more effective through more direct criticisms of
specific behaviours (Asmub, 2008).

• Tell clearly what they are doing well and describe what they need to
improve (Foster, 2002).

VAC JGBS
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 Receive feedback openly

• Listen carefully to the other person’s point of view, and consider

feedback giver’s intention.

• Let your defences down. If you find yourself getting upset, try
breathing deeply or taking a short break.

• Resist the urge to justify the behaviour or actions that are being
criticized.

• Wait for your chance to respond, and present your perspective clearly
and calmly.

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 Receive feedback openly

• Identify what you can learn from the feedback.

• Focus on how you can improve in the future

• Come up with a plan of action

• Always thank the other person for the feedback

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 Easy to influence Difficult to influence

Personality
Time and Knowledge Attitudes Habits
Job traits
skills work
management

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 Types of Feedback

Identifies behaviors and

performances that contribute to
the goals and encourages the
individual to repeat and develop
them

Identifies behaviors and

performances that do not
Reinforcement
contribute to goals and helps
(affirm)
the individual to develop
alternative strategies

(Poertner and Miller, 1996)

Redirection
(modify)
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 response to (students) work, while
it is in progress. Suggestions for
improvement

Formative is a summary of (students) final

output or performance (grade
point / score)

Summative
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 Forms of Feedback

• Written - Oral

• Qualitative – Quantitative

• Verbal - Non-verbal

• Positive – Negative

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 Components

Establishing
the purpose
Feed up

Feed Feed
back
Review forward

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 Feedback Models

+ve - ve
You Are Doing Good Work You Need to Work Harder/Do Better

B ehaviour
B ehaviour
E ffect
Effect
A lternative
Thank you
R esult
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 Feedback Models

Behaviour Describe specific, detailed observations of positive behaviours

Clear, detailed, accurate

Accuracy – describing frequency of behaviour (three times,

twice etc., rather never, always)

Effect Explain how the individual’s behaviour / actions are helpful

Thank you
(Berry, Cadwell, and Fehrmann, 1996)
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 Feedback Models

Behaviour

Effect
Alternative
Result

(Berry, Cadwell, and Fehrmann, 1996)

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 Sandwich Method

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 3:1 Approach ( Positive : Negative) Feedback

:
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 Social Interaction

Functions of
Social Cohesion
Language
Expressions of Identity

A set of symbols that a cultural group has

Language
agreed to use to create meaning.

The symbols and their meanings are often

arbitrary

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 Nation or the region where a person
lives or grew up
Age

Linguistic variations
Level of education

Socioeconomic status

(Shearer, 2008; Finegan, 2008; Haviland, Prins, Walrath, McBride, 2011; Crystal, 2003)

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 Language variations

Variations in pronunciation that occur when

people are speaking the same language
Accent

Result of geographical or historical differences

Regional differences in language usage

Dialect
Distinguished by differences in vocabulary,
grammar, and even punctuation

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 Language variations

A private vocabulary unique to a co-culture, group,

organization, or profession.

Prisoners, street gangs, professional or sporting

Argot
groups.

Employ a specialized vocabulary to obscure the

intended meaning or to create a sense of identity.

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 Language variations

Those non-standard terms, usually used in instances of

informality, which serve as a “means of making social or
linguistic identity”.
Slang

Can be regionally based, associated with a co-culture, or used

by groups engaged in a specific endeavour.

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 Four Key Concepts of a
Negotiation
Know your Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement
BATNA

Reservation Price / Least favourable point at which one will

accept a deal
Walk-away

Zone of Possible Agreement

ZOPA
Area or range in which a deal that satisfies
both parties can take place

Value creation through Negotiating parties can improve their positions

trades by trading the values at their disposal

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 Nine Steps to a Deal

Step 1 Consider what a good outcome would be for you and the other side

Step 2 Identify potential value creation opportunities

Step 3 Identify your BATNA and Reservation price, and do the same for the
other side

Step 4 Shore up your BATNA

Step 5 Anticipate the authority issue

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 Learn all you can about the other side’s people and culture, their
Step 6
goals, and how they have framed the issue

Step 7 Prepare for flexibility in the process – don’t lock yourself into a rigid
sequence

Step 8 Gather external standards and criteria relevant to fairness

Step 9 Alter the process in your favour

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LISTENING An active process by
which we make
sense of, assess, and
respond to what we
hear
 (Active) L I S T E N I N G PROCESS

Understanding Evaluating

Remembering

Feedback
Receiving (Source: DeVito, 2000)
 Causes of poor listening

Low
Concentration

Lack of
prioritization
Poor Judgement

Focus on style, not

substance
 What makes a conversation Difficult?

Ask a colleague to stop interrupting you in meetings

Tell a fellow team member that she’s not pulling her weight

Ask your boss for a promotion

A difficult conversation is one in which the other person has a
viewpoint that differs from yours, one or both of you feel
insecure in some way, and the stakes seems high.