O Level Biology (5158)

Theme 3: Continuity of life

 O Level Biology
Subject code: 5158
Level of study: O Levels
Video Course Instructor: Bureau Nicolas Khairul

Theme 3: Continuity of life

Overview:
1. Introduction to reproduction
2. Sexual reproduction in plants
3. Sexual reproduction in humans and STDs
4. Mitosis
5. Meiosis
6. DNA: Building blocks of life
7. Genes, genetic engineering and medical biotechnology
8. Inheritance
9. Mutation and variation
10. Selection and evolution
Meiosis
Learning outcomes for Theme 3, Topic 5:
Meiosis
• State what is meant by homologous pairs of chromosomes
• Identify, with the aid of diagrams, the main stages of meiosis (names
of the sub-divisions of prophase are not required)
• Define the terms haploid and diploid, and explain the need for a
reduction division process prior to fertilisation in sexual reproduction
• State how meiosis and fertilisation can lead to variation
Meiosis
• In sexual reproduction, gametes fuse to form a zygote
• Gametes have half the number of chromosomes as the organism
• Meiosis is the process of reduction division to form gametes
• Gametes have half the chromosomes and are haploid (n) while all
other cells in the body are diploid (2n)
 Homologous chromosomes
• Homologous chromosomes are the same shape, same length and
have the same genes
• One copy comes from the mother, another comes from the father
• During meiosis, homologous chromosomes are segregated

Source:
http://www.mpietrangelo.com/hbio/
unit/9_cell_reproduction/Chapter_08
/B_Jpegs_of_Art_and_Photos/08_La
beled_Art_and_Photos/08_12Homol
ogousPair-L.jpg
Stages of meiosis
• There are 2 parts of meiosis:
Meiosis I and Meiosis II
• Each consists of similar phases to
mitosis
Prophase I
• Chromatin condense into chromosomes
• Homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis)
• Chromatids of homologous chromosomes cross and twist around each other at
chiasma
• The chromosomes break and rejoin at chiasma in a process called crossing over
• This produces new combinations of genes

Source:
https://d2gne97vdu
mgn3.cloudfront.net
/api/file/kopxooxPQ
UKzcitCvWmz
Metaphase I
• Pairs of homologous chromosomes arrange themselves at the
equator
• Each of the homologous chromosomes will be on opposite sides of
the equator
• The arrangement of chromosomes is independent of each other
Source:
https://s3.amazonaws.c
om/classconnection/45
5/flashcards/2850455/p
ng/metaphase1-
14986F361D96CC77175
.png
Anaphase I
• Homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell
• At this point, each chromosome is still made of two sister chromatids
• However, there are half the number of chromosomes as a parent cell

Source:
https://s3.amazonaws.com/classconn
ection/455/flashcards/2850455/png/
anaphase1-
14986F4A24760D5A12D.png
Telophase I
• Nuclear envelope reforms around the cell
• Cytoplasm divides, forming two daughter cells, each with haploid
number of chromosomes

Source: http://www.ontrack-
media.net/biology/bm2l6image9.jpg
Meiosis II
• The steps of meiosis II follow mitosis,
resulting in formation of a total of
4 haploid cells

Source:
http://cyberbridge.m
cb.harvard.edu/imag
es/mitosis7_1.png
Purpose of meiosis
• Meiosis produces haploid gametes which help to maintain the diploid
chromosomes of the organism after fertilization
• Meiosis also produces genetic variation:
• Crossing over during prophase I creates new chromosomes
• Independent assortment of chromosomes during metaphase I means that
many possible combinations of chromosomes are possible from a small
number of original chromosomes
• Variation helps to increase chances of survival during changes in the
environment
Thank you