Petroleum Geology:

Latin words: Petra, Oleum

meaning : Rock, Oil

- Hence petroleum is also called rock oil.

- It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbon (H and C) compounds with

minor amount of N, O and S as impurities.
- The average chemical composition is:
C: 84.5%, H:13%, S:1.5%, N:0.5%, O:0.5%

1
 Chemical composition and
physical properties of crudes in nature.

- Petroleum is a complex mixture of gaseous, liquid and

solid hydrocarbons.

- It contains complex mixtures of C, H, O, N and S with

small amounts of water and inorganic matter.

- Chemical Composition of Petroleum:

Carbon 82.2 to 87.1 %

Hydrogen 11.7 to 14.7 %
Sulfur 0.1 to 5.5 %
Nitrogen 0.1 to 2.4 %
Oxygen 0.1 to 7.4 %
Minerals 0.1 to 1.2 %
(i.e. Inorganic constituents) 2
- The physical and chemical properties of different samples
of petroleum are not uniform because of the varying
chemical composition and the presence of impurities.

- Since petroleum in the natural reservoir occurs in most

cases under pressure, some of the gaseous material and
certain solid materials are dissolved in the liquid
petroleum.

- The physical and chemical properties of petroleum in the

natural reservoir are somewhat different from those
observed at the surface because of changes in
temperature and pressure and the loss of volatile
constituents.

3
Physical properties of hydrocarbons:
1. COLOR:
- The color of petroleum varies considerably.

- Colorless, light yellow, red, green, brown, and black, or

any intermediate shade.

- In thin layers colors are less intense, and in black oils the
thin layers are brown in color.

- The higher gravity crude oils : amber or green in color.

- The lower gravity crude : dark brown to black in color.

- When crude oils are observed by reflected light the color

appears to be different than that observed by transmitted
light. 4
- eg. Brown oil : green by reflected light.

- Ultraviolet light causes crude oils to fluoresce with

characteristic colors even if they are of the same color by
transmitted and reflected light.

- Most of the pure hydrocarbons are colorless but may

become colored upon oxidation.

- Color may be caused by the addition of oxygen to

colorless leucosis bases and the uniting of the leuco bases
with other elements or groups to give colored
compounds.

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2.ODOR:
- The odor of a crude oil is determined by its composition.

- Paraffin and naphthenes: responsible for the agreeable

odors.

- Unsaturated hydrocarbons, certain nitrogen compounds,

and sulphur : cause the disagreeable odors.
3.SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
- The specific gravity of a crude oil is the ratio of the
weight of a given volume at a temperature of 600F to the
weight of an equal volume of distilled water at the same
temperature.
- It is an index to the value of oil.

- In general, the lighter oils have greater value because

they contain larger quantities of gasoline and other
6
valuable products.
- Since oil is lighter than water, the specific gravity is
normally expressed as a decimal or fraction.

- The decimal scale is used in most foreign countries, but

in the United States the gravity is expressed in degrees by
whole numbers, using the API scale.

- It was derived by using water as to degrees and a

modulus of 140.

- API gravity is expressed as :

141.5 - 131.5
Degrees API =
Sp. Gr. at 60ºF

- Degrees API is inversely proportional to density and viscosity.

7
- The API gravity of crude oil varies with changes in
depth, temperature, age of the rocks, impurities, and
with the geologic history of different areas.

- In general, the gravity of oil increases with depth and

with increasing geologic age of the rocks.

- Light oils : API > 40 (Sp. Gr.: 0.83)

- Heavy oils : API < 10 (Sp. Gr.: 1)

Inverse correlation between API

and Sp.Gr.
API

Sp. Gr. 8
 Specific Specific
Degrees Degrees
Gravity Gravity
API API
At 600F At 600F
10 1.0000 55 0.7587
15 0.9659 60 0.7389
20 0.9340 65 0.7201
25 0.9042 70 0.7022
30 0.8762 75 0.6852
35 0.8498 80 0.6690
40 0.8251 85 0.6536
45 0.8017 90 0.6388
50 0.7796 95 0.6247
9
100 0.6112
 4.VISCOSITY

- Viscosity is a measure of the internal resistance to motion

of a fluid by reason of the forces of cohesion between
molecules or molecular groups.

- It is a property of great importance in the movement of

oil through rocks.

- Viscosity is usually expressed in the time necessary for a

volume of oil at a definite temperature to flow through a
unit opening.

- Viscosities are determined by means of a number of

standardized viscometers.
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- Crude oils vary considerably in viscosity.

- Those with a high API gravity, in general, have a low

viscosity, whereas those with a low gravity have a high
viscosity.

- However, this relationship is not always uniform

because two oils of the same gravity do not always have
the same viscosity.

- The viscosity is also influenced by the chemical

composition.

- High API : Low Sp.Gr. : Low viscosity

- Low API : High Sp.Gr. : High viscosity

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5.OPTICAL ACTIVITY

- Most oils have the power of rotating the plane of

polarization of polarized light.

- This is known as optical activity.

- A light ray after emerging from a Nicol prism vibrates in

one plane only called plane polarized light (PPL).

- The PPL rotates to the right (called dextrorotatory oils)

in some oils,

- and in others to the left (called levulorotatory oils)

- Cause: presence of cholesterol, which is found in both

vegetable and animal matter.
(It has the formula C26H45OH). 12
6.BOILING POINT(BP)

- The BPs of crude oils are quite variable and depend upon
their composition.

- Oil of low API: High BP, due to larger content of HC with

high BP
- Oil of high API: low BP, due to smaller content of HC
with low BP

- Therefore, the more volatile the hydrocarbons in a crude

oil, the lower the boiling point.

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8. FLUORESCENCE

- All crude oils show a fluorescence or glow of varying

degree under ultraviolet light.

The slightest trace of oil will fluoresce under ultraviolet

light.

One part oil dissolved in 100,000 parts of carbon

tetrachloride will fluoresce enough to be observed.

The color observed is usually a green yellow to yellow.

Fluorescence of crude oil is excited when subjected to

ultraviolet radiations ranging between 2,000 and 3,800
angstroms (Aº).
14
- In the petroleum industry fluorescence analysis may be
used to determine the grade and purity of crude oil and
its refined products, and to identify specific zones or
horizons from which a well is producing.

- It is also widely used in field operations to test cores,

cuttings, and drilling mud for shows of oil.

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 Hydrocarbons in crude oil/natural gas

- The hydrocarbons are grouped into two general families

or series on the basis of the chemical union of the carbon
atom and the resulting character of the series.

- The first series, in which the carbon atoms are linked in a

straight chain, is known as the open chain or aliphatic
series.

- The second series, in which the carbon atoms are arranged

in a closed chain or ring, is called the closed chain or
carbocyclic series.
- Definition of crude oil (as per API, AAPG and SPE):
Crude oil is defined as a mixture of HC that existed in the
liquid phase in natural underground reservoirs and remains
liquid at atmospheric pressure after passing through surface
separating facilities. 16
 Hydrocarbons in crude oil

Open chain Closed chain

or or
Aliphatic series Aromatic series
(i) Paraffin or methane series (i) Benzene Series
(ii) Olefine or Ethylene Series (ii) Cycloparaffin or
(iii) Acetylene Series and Naphthene Series
(iv) Diolefine Series

In crude oil: Paraffins occur in largest amount (> 50%),

followed by napthenes (~40%) and benzene series (~ 10%)

17
ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS

- The members of aliphatic organic compounds which occur

in crude oil/natural gases are :

(i) Paraffin or methane series,

(ii) Olefine or Ethylene Series,
(iii) Acetylene Series and
(iv) Diolefine Series
(i) Paraffin or methane series
- General formulae : CnH2n+2.
- The members of the paraffin series occur extensively in
natural gas, crude oil, and mineral waxes. These are
colorless and water insoluble.

- Natural gas contains large quantities of methane (50-96

per cent), and ethane (0-20 per cent), and small amounts
of propane and other hydrocarbons. 18
- Gasoline and kerosene consist mainly of the paraffins.
- Ozokerite consists of solid paraffin hydrocarbons.
- The members of the paraffin series are saturated
hydrocarbons which contain only singly linked carbon
atoms. The most elementary example of this series is
methane, CH4.
- The general formulae : CnH2n+2.
- The first four members of the series C1(methane),
C2(ethane),C3(propane) to C4 (butane) are gases at
ordinary temperatures.
- The middle members C5 (pentane), up to C15 and
including pentadecane, C15H32, are volatile liquids.
- The remaining members, from hexadecane, C16H24,
onwards, are solids and wax like.
19
(ii) Olefine or Ethylene Series

- The olefine or ethylene series is similar to the paraffin

series.

- The members of the olefine series contain two atoms of

hydrogen less than the corresponding paraffins.

- The basic formula for the series is CnH2n.

- Most crude oils contain proportions of hydrocarbons of

this series.

- The olefins are similar to the paraffins in physical

properties in that the lower three members are gases,
the intermediate ones are liquids, and the higher three
members are solids. 20
- They are lighter than water, and their boiling points are
in general, higher than those of the paraffins.

- In chemical properties the olefins differ from the

paraffins.

- The simplest members of the olefine series are ethylene

(C2H4) and propylene (C2H6).

(iii) Acetylene Series

- The basic formula for the acetylene series is CnH2n-2.

- The members of this series have two carbon atoms which

are united by triple bonds.

- There are two less hydrogen atoms in compounds of this

series compared to corresponding members of the olefine
21
series.
- Small amounts of compounds of the acetylene series
occur in some crude oils, but acetylene hydrocarbons
have not been found in natural gas.

Diolefine Series

- The diolefines are unsaturated hydrocarbons having the

same basic formula as the acetylenes, CnH2n-2.

- The structural formula differs, however, in that the

diolefines have two double bonded carbon atoms
instead of one triple bonded carbon atom.

- This series is more active chemically than the olefins.

- Its polymers give petroleum products a dark color

which is objectionable to the refiner and retailer. 22
CARBOCYCLIC/CLOSED CHAIN HYDROCARBONS
- The members of closed chain or carbocyclic HC compounds
which occur in crude oil/natural gases include :

(i) Benzene Series

(ii) Cycloparaffin or Naphthene Series

(i) Benzene Series:

- The members of the benzene series are all unsaturated

cyclic compounds of the aromatic group.

- General formulae CnH2n-6 (eg. benzene).

- Strong odor and a lower boiling point than aliphatic

hydrocarbons with same number of C-atoms.
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- Members of the benzene series are found as the original
constituent of crude oil and natural gas.

- The percentage of these compounds in the lighter

crude oils is insignificant, but the amount found in the
lower API gravity crude oils is in larger proportions.

- Important compounds of this in HC are tolune and xylene.

(ii) Cycloparaffin or Naphthene Series

- This series is known as an alacyclic series because it

possesses both the properties of the aliphatic and cyclic
hydrocarbons.

- It resembles the paraffin series in chemical and physical

properties except in density.
24
- The naphthene compounds are heavier than those of the
paraffin series.

- The basic formula is CnH2n, and the structural formula is

cyclic, but the members are saturated hydrocarbons since
they have single bonds between the carbon atoms.

- The naphthenes form a large part of Russian and

Roumanian oils.

- They have been reported in small amounts in crude oils

from Pennsylvania and in moderate amounts in oils from
the Mid-Continent area.

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- Hydrocarbons also contain sulphur & sulphur componds,
nitrogen, oxygen and inorganic constituents
SULPHUR AND SULPHUR COMPOUNDS
- Some sulphur occurs in all petroleum, generally in one of
three forms:
(i) free sulphur
(ii) hydrogen sulphide and
(iii) organic sulphur compounds, such as thiophene
(C4H4S), thiophanes (CnH2nS), alkyl sulphides,
carbon bisulphide, and others.
All these together makes the amount of sulphur in crude oils
up to 5%.

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OXYGEN(O)
- The O-content of crude oil is usually about 2 or 3% but
the amount in some natural gas is much greater.

- Elementary oxygen is found in small amounts in crude

oil and natural gas.

- The amount in natural gas is usually < 1%, but as much

as 7.38 per cent has been reported from the Polanka
locality in Poland.

- O also occurs in crude oil and natural gas in naphthenic

acids, phenolic compounds, and oxygenated compounds.
The naphthenic acids probably occur in most crude oils.
-
- Phenolic compounds have been found in some crude oils,
and the asphaltic content of crude oil consists essentially
27
of highly condensed oxygenated compounds.
INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS
- The amount of inorganic matter present in petroleum is
relatively small compared to other fuels.

- A great variety of elements has been reported from the

ash of crude oil, asphalt, and refinery residues.

- Some of the common elements are: Fe, Al, Ca, P, Mg, Si,
Cu, V, Ni, Pb, Au and Na.

- Since crude oil is in contact with rocks which usually

contain Si, Fe, Al, Mg, Ca, and P the presence of these
elements in the ash of crude oil is not unusual.

- Sea weeds are known to contain Ni and V occurs in

marine plants and animals.
- The remaining elements are all found in sea water, and it is
believed to be the source of these elements in petroleum.28
 Sweet gas: H2S absent
Natural hydrocarbon gas
Sour gas: H2S present

Dry gas Wet gas

< 0.1gal/1000ft3 condensate 0.1gal/1000ft3 condensate
- Methane (50-96% ) -Ethane (0-20%)
-Propane
-Butane

- Form biologically - Don’t form biogenically

- Form by thermal maturation of
organic matter.
- If presence recorded by drilling
it indicates proximity to a significant
petroleum accumulation or source 29
rock.
NATURAL GAS
- Natural gas consists of gaseous hydrocarbons which are
the more highly volatile component of petroleum.

- Its hydrocarbon constituents at ordinary temperatures

and pressures as it issues from wells are principally
methane (CH4), and ethane (C2H6), but varying amounts
of propane (C3H3), butane (C4H10), pantane (C5H12),
hexane (C6H14), and heptane (C7H16) may be present as
gases or vapors.

- The gaseous impurities are N,CO2, H2S, and traces of H,

O and CO.
- Natural gas is found associated with oil in all oil
producing fields of the world.
- The amount present, however, varies greatly in different
fields. 30
- It is also found in many fields as dry gas in the complete
absence of oil.

- The composition of natural gas varies in different fields

and in different producing horizons of the same field.
-
BITUMINOUS SUBSTANCES RELATED TO PETROLEUM
- There is a number of hydrocarbons, closely related to
petroleum, which are solid at ordinary temperatures and
pressures.

- They include such substances as mineral waxes, asphalts,

asphaltites, and asphaltic pyrobitumens.

- The physical and chemical properties of these substances

are almost identical with the solid compounds present
after the distillation of petroleum.
31
- There is therefore a very close relationship between these
substances and petroleum.
Mineral Waxes
- The most common mineral wax is ozokerite.

- It is pure paraffin solid composed of the higher members

of the paraffin and ethylene series of hydrocarbons.

- Ozokerite ranges in color from a transparent yellow to

dark brown.
Native Asphalt
- Native asphalt occurs as liquid or semi-liquid asphalt in
seepages, lakes, and asphaltic sandstones and limestones.

- The occurrence of native asphalt is widespread in the

Unites States, Canada, Mexico, Trinidad, and Venezuela,
and local deposits occur in Europe and Asia. 32
- In the United States important deposits occur in
southern Oklahoma where most of the asphalt is found
in asphaltic sandstones and limestone.

- Some of these deposits are used in the construction of

highways.

- There are important deposits of asphaltic sandstones in

California.

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Asphaltites
- Asphaltites differ from native asphalts in having a higher
fusing point and in the mode of their occurrence.

- Asphaltites occur as vein deposits below the surface of

the ground, whereas asphalts are usually found at the
surface as seepages.

- The asphaltites are grouped into three substances:

gilsonite or uintaite, glance pitch, and grahamite.

- Gilsonite is an asphaltite which has a black color, a bright

to fairly bright luster, and a conchoidal fracture.

- Gilsonite is used in the manufacture of paints and

varnishes.
- Glance pitch is similar to gilsonite but has a higher
specific gravity and a black streak instead of brown.34
Asphaltic Pyrobitumens
- Asphaltic pyrobitumens include wurtzilite, albertite, and
impsonite.

- They are natural hydrocarbons which have been formed

by the metamorphism of petroleum.

- Wurtzilite, also known as elaterite, is a black asphaltic

substance which occurs in veins.
- Wurtzilite does not melt without decomposition but
softens and burns upon heating.

- Albertite is a type of asphaltic pyrobitumens which is

infusible and insoluble in carbon disulphide. It expands
and decomposes upon heating.

- Impsonite represents the final stage in the metamorphism

of asphaltic pyrobitumens. It has a high percentage35 of
fixed carbon.