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Structures
Mike Brennan
UNESP, Ilha Solteira
São Paulo
Brasil
Waves in Structures
w x , t A Im e j t kx
w x , t Ae j t
e jkx
w x A e jkx
w x A e jkx
The Wavenumber (propagating waves)
time distance
T
2 2
k
T c
Temporal frequency Spatial frequency
(wavenumber)
jkx
k is the phase change per unit distance Ae
Temporal Phase
A
w (t )
t
j t
x Ae
j ( t T )
x Ae
T
Green curve lags the blue curve by ¼ of a cycle
Spatial Phase
A
w(x)
x
w Ae jkx
j ( kx P )
w Ae
P
k
Green curve lags the blue curve by ¼ of a wavelength
Superposition of Waves
Interference of Waves
Wave motion A sin t kx
Wave motion
A sin t kx
w x ,t
Wave motion
w x , t 2A cos sin t kx
2
Standing Waves
Wave motion
A sin t kx
A sin t kx
Wave motion
Standing wave
w x ,t
Wave motion w x ,t
1 2 k 1 k 2 1 2 k 1 k 2
w x , t 2A cos t x sin t x
2 2 2 2
Waves in solids
Waves motion in a string
Wave motion in a string
w T
y
y dx
x
dy String
y dx segment
x x dx
2w
df y L dx 2
t
where L is the mass per unit length
2w 1 2w
2 0
x 2
c t 2
T
where c is the phase speed
L
Wave motion in a string
T
c is a constant - the wave is non-dispersive
L
Wave speed c
w j t kx
w Ae
j t kx w jkAe
x
w j t kx
boundary condition w j Ae
t
f y t T sin t Tw 0, t
f y t
Z L c which is real and hence damping-like
w 0, t
Wave motion in a rod
Wave motion in a rod
u
f bar element
f f df of area S and
x density ρ
x x dx
f u
E ……………………..(1)
S x
f 2u ……(2)
f x dx f S dx 2
t
Wave motion in a rod
Now from (1)
f 2u
ES
x x 2
which combines with (2) to give the wave equation
2u 1 2u
2 2 0
x 2
c t
E
where c is the phase speed ( constant with frequency)
Wave motion in a rod
Second order partial differential equation as
with the string
2u 1 2u
2 2 0
x 2
c t
Results in two propagating waves
u( x ) Ae jkx
Be jkx
Wave motion in a rod - impedance
u
rod area S
f and density ρ
f t
Z S E which is real and hence damping-like
u 0, t
In-Plane Wave motion
E
rod c
E Poisson's ratio
c
plate
1 2
E 1
3D solid c
1 1 2
Shear Waves
Shear Waves
The wave equation is given by
2w 1 2w
2 0
x 2
c t 2
where
G Shear modulus
c
E 2 1 G
Poisson's ratio
E Young's modulus
G shear modulus
M M dM
V V dV
x
Summing forces
V w
2
V V dx S dx 2 ……(1)
x t
Wave motion in a beam
Summing moments about the any point on the right hand
face
M
M x dx M Vdx 0 ……(2)
From (1) and (2) Bending stiffness
V 2w M 2w
S 0 V and M EI
x t 2
x x 2
Combining these equations gives the wave equation
w
4
w
2
EI S 0
x 4
t 2
Wave speed in a beam
• Note that the wave equation is fourth order rather than
second order.
• What is the phase speed? Is it dependent on frequency?
• First consider the equation for a single-degree-of-freedom
mass-spring-damper system
d 2u
n
2
u 0 (Ordinary differential equation - time)
dt 2
2u 1 2u
2 2 0
(Partial differential equation -
x c t
2 space and time)
Wave speed in a beam
• Assume harmonic motion the wave equation becomes
d u
2
k u 0
2
(Ordinary differential equation - space)
dx 2
where k
c
• Now consider the wave equation for a beam
d w4
k w 0
4
(Ordinary differential equation - space)
dx 4
1 1
S 4 1
EI 4 1
where k 2 So c 2
c EI S
cg
W x ,t
Carrier Velocity
1 2 k 1 k 2 1 2 k 1 k 2
W x , t 2A cos t x sin t x
2 2 2 2
1 2 d
cg cg
k 1 k 2 k
In the limit
dk
Group velocity – flexural waves
• The wavenumber is given by
1
S 21 4
k
EI
1
EI 2 2
k
S
1
d EI 2
2 k 2c
dk S
• The group velocity is twice the phase velocity
Wave motion
Non Dispersive
Shear
Longitudinal
Dispersive
Bending
Wave characteristics
Wave characteristics
Wave characteristics
Bending Waves – motion in a beam
Start with the wave equation
w w
4 2
EI S 0
x 4
t 2
Nearfield waves
Wave motion in a beam - impedance
y
x
Beam of area S
and density ρ
f t
w A2e j t
e kx
A4e j t
e jkx
0 E Iw 0, t
t
4
4
4
Eh 3
where 2 2 and D
x 4
x y y 4
12 1 2
Assume time harmonic motion, gives
w k w 0
4 4 where k
c
Bending Wavenumber in a plate
• The bending number for a plate is given by
1
k
12 1 2 4
1
2
Eh2
Eh
Bending Waves – frequency limits
• Bending wave behaviour stems from the Euler-
Bernoulli beam equation
2
10
1
10 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
Timoshenko beam
Beam segment of
y w length dx cross-
sectional area S
M I M dM
V V dV
x
Equation of motion
4w E 4w 2w 2I 4w
EI I G 1 2 2 S 0
x 4
x t t 2
G t 4
Timoshenko beam
Assuming time harmonic motion, the equation of motion
becomes
d 4w k S2 d 2
w k k
2 2
kL
2
kB
4 S L
w 0
dx
x
4 2
S - s hear
L - Longitudinal
which leads to B - Bending
2
1 kS 1 kS
2 2
k
2
kL kB
2
4
kL
2
2 4
Shear wave
3
10
Bending wave
300 kHz
2
10 4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
Wavenumbers
2
1 kS 1 kS
2 2
k
2
kL kB
2
4
kL
2
2 4
kS kL kB
cS cL cB
1 1 1
G 2 E 2 E I 21
4
cS cL cB
A
Parameters
E 2 1 G
Poisson's ratio
E Young's modulus
G shear modulus
Timoshenko's shear coefficient
density
A cross-sectional area
I second moment of area
Wavelength
Aluminium beam, 14 mm wide, 2 mm thick
3
10
c
Wave length (mm)
2 f
10
Bending wave
1
10 Longitudinal wave
0
10
Shear wave
-1
10 4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
Wave motion in beams – summary
At low frequencies
At high frequencies
• Torsional waves, Longitudinal waves
• Flexural waves that propagate at
• (a) compressional wave speed
• (b) shear wave speed)
Reflection and
Transmission of Waves
Hard boundary
Soft boundary
Reflection and
Transmission of Waves
1 2
Ar Z 1 Z 2 1 At 2
A Z1 Z 2 1 A Z 2 Z1 1
PZT element
beam
PZT element
PZT element
beam
PZT element
Generating Waves
actuators driven out-of-phase – bending vibration induced
PZT element
beam
PZT element
M M
M
d 2Eb 1 dˆ
6 12dˆ 8dˆ 2
dˆ
dp V
ˆ
d Eb d31
d dp
E p bp
Ratio of Free strain
Ratio of
thicknesses
stiffnesses
Generating Waves
actuators driven in-phase – longitudinal vibration induced
PZT element
F beam F
PZT element
2dEb
F
6
dˆ
ˆ dp Eb V
d d31
d E p bp dp
Ratio of Ratio of Free strain
thicknesses stiffnesses
Force and Moment Generation by
PZT Elements
0.18
0.16 Force
0.14
0.12
0.1
Moment
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
thickness of PZT
thickness of beam
Generating Waves
Single actuator – bending and Longitudinal vibration induced
1 1
A3 A18.0 A2
0.8
A4
6.0 0.6
4.0 0.4
2.0 0.2
0 0
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1-
PZT element -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
beam d
Al l Ar
A1 1 e kB l Fd
A kB l
2 1 1 e 2 Al j 1 e jkLl F
jkL l
A
3 4EIk 2
B
1 e jkB l Fd Ar 2EAkL 1 e F
A4 jkB l
1 e 2
Bending Waves
PZT element
beam
-7
M M
10
Lateral Displacement (m)
Length of PZT is a
multiple of a bending
-8
10 wavelength
-9
10
-10
10 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
Longitudinal Waves
PZT element
F beam F
-8
10
Lateral Displacement (m)
-9
10
-10
10 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
Power Generated by PZT Actuator
(Example 2 mm thick beam 8 mm long PZT)
1.5
1 Longitudinal
PL
0.5 2
1 cos kL l
F 2EAkL
0 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
Sensing
Piezoelectric Elements as Strain Sensors
3
Voltage generator
C
q cV
V
c is the capacitance of the sensor
V is the voltage generated
Charge generator
q is the charge generated C
q
Longitudinal vibration Sensor
l
b u
A
q d31 1dA
0 (A=Area of PZT electrode)
which evaluates to d31 Piezoelectric coefficient
A
q d31 1dA (A=Area of PZT electrode)
0
d31 Piezoelectric coefficient
which evaluates to
d
q d31 bE p w (l ) w (0)
2
Difference in slope at the ends of the sensor
Piezoelectric Vibration Sensor
l w
b x u
A
q d31 1dA
0
which evaluates to
d
q d31E p b u(l ) u(0) q w (l ) w (0)
2
Longitudinal Bending
Piezoelectric Vibration Sensor
l
b
A4
Ar
w (l ) w (0) jk b A4 1 e jkB l
u(l ) u(0) Ar 1 e jkL l
Note this also acts like a filter
Summary
• Review of wave motion