SWITCHING THEORY AND LOGIC

DESIGN

GNIT ECE 1
 UNIT – I Number System and Boolean
algebra And Switching Functions: Review of
number systems, Complements of Numbers,
Codes- Binary Codes, Binary Coded Decimal
Code and its Properties, Unit Distance Codes,
Error Detecting and Correcting Codes.
Boolean Algebra: Basic Theorems and
Properties, Switching Functions, Canonical
and Standard Form, Algebraic Simplification
of Digital Logic Gates, Properties of XOR
Gates, Universal Gates, Multilevel NAND/NOR
realizations.
GNIT ECE 2
 1.1 Review of number systems
 1.2 Complements of Numbers
 1.3 Codes- Binary Codes
 1.4 Binary Coded Decimal Code and its Properties
 1.5 Unit Distance Codes
 1.6 Error Detecting and Correcting Codes
 1.7 Boolean Algebra: Basic Theorems and Properties
 1.8 Switching Functions
 1.9 Canonical and Standard Form
 1.10 Algebraic Simplification of Digital Logic Gates
 1.11 Properties of XOR Gates
 1.12 Universal Gates
 1.13 Multilevel NAND/NOR realizations

GNIT ECE 3
 Base (also called radix) = 10
 10 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }
 Digit Position
 Integer & fraction
 Digit Weight d2*B2+d1*B1+d0*B0+d-1*B-1+d-2*B-2
 Weight = (Base) Position
 Magnitude
 Sum of “Digit x Weight”
 Formal Notation

GNIT ECE 4
 Base =2
 2 digits { 0, 1 }, called binary digits or “bits”
 Weights
4 2 1 1/2 1/4
Position
 Weight = (Base) 1 0 1 0 1
 Magnitude 2 1 0 -1 -2

 Sum of “Bit x Weight” 1

2 *2 2
+0 *2 1
+1 *2 0
+0 *2 -1
+1 *2 -

 Formal Notation
=(5.25)10
 Groups of bits 4 bits = Nibble
(101.01)2
8 bits = Byte
1011

11000101
GNIT ECE 5
 Evaluate
Magnitude
Octal
(Base 8)

Evaluate
Magnitude
Decimal Binary
(Base 10) (Base 2)

Hexadecimal
(Base 16)
Evaluate
Magnitude
GNIT ECE 6
 Divide the number by the ‘Base’ (=2)
 Take the remainder (either 0 or 1) as a coefficient
 Take the quotient and repeat the division

Example: (13)10
Quotient Remainder Coefficient
13/ 2 = 6 1 a0 = 1
6 /2= 3 0 a1 = 0
3 /2= 1 1 a2 = 1
1 /2= 0 1 a3 = 1
Answer: (13)10 = (a3 a2 a1 a0)2 = (1101)2

MSB LSB
GNIT ECE 7
 Multiplythe number by the ‘Base’ (=2)
 Take the integer (either 0 or 1) as a coefficient
 Take the resultant fraction and repeat the division

Example: (0.625)10
Integer Fraction Coefficient
0.625 * 2 = 1 . 25 a-1 = 1
0.25 * 2 = 0 . 5 a-2 = 0
0.5 *2= 1 . 0 a-3 = 1
Answer: (0.625)10 = (0.a-1 a-2 a-3)2 = (0.101)2

MSB LSB

GNIT ECE 8
Example: (175)10
Quotient Remainder Coefficient
175 / 8 = 21 7 a0 = 7
21 / 8 = 2 5 a1 = 5
2 /8= 0 2 a2 = 2
Answer: (175)10 = (a2 a1 a0)8 = (257)8

Example: (0.3125)10
Integer Fraction Coefficient
0.3125 * 8 = 2 . 5 a-1 = 2
0.5 *8= 4 . 0 a-2 = 4
Answer: (0.3125)10 = (0.a-1 a-2 a-3)8 = (0.24)8

GNIT ECE 9
 Octal Binary
8 =23
0 000
 Each group of 3 bits represents
an octal digit 1 001
2 010
Assume Zeros
Example: 3 011

( 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 )2 4 100
5 101
6 110
( 2 6 . 2 )8 7 111

Works both ways (Binary to Octal & Octal to Binary)

GNIT ECE 10
 16 = 24 Hex Binary
0 0000
 Each group of 4 bits represents a 1 0001
hexadecimal digit 2
3
0010
0011
4 0100
Assume Zeros 5 0101
Example: 6 0110
7 0111
( 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 )2 8 1000
9 1001
A 1010
B 1011
C 1100
D 1101
(1 6 . 4 )16 E 1110
F 1111

Works both ways (Binary to Hex & Hex to Binary)

GNIT ECE 11
 Convert to Binary as an intermediate step
Example:
( 2 6 . 2
)8
Assume Zeros Assume Zeros

( 0 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 0 )2

(1 6 . 4 )16

Works both ways (Octal to Hex & Hex to Octal)

GNIT ECE 12
 Base =8
 8 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 } 64 8 1 1/8 1/64
 Weights
Position
5 1 2 7 4
 Weight = (Base)
2 1 0 -1 -2
 Magnitude
5 *82+1 *81+2 *80+7 *8-1+4 *8-2
 Sum of “Digit x Weight”
=(330.9375)10
 Formal Notation
(512.74)8

GNIT ECE 13
 Base = 16
 16 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F }
256 16 1 1/16 1/256
 Weights
 Weight = (Base) Position 1 E 5 7 A
2 1 0 -1 -2
 Magnitude
1 *162+14 *161+5 *160+7 *16-1+10 *16-2
 Sum of “Digit x Weight”
 Formal Notation =(485.4765625)10

(1E5.7A)16

GNIT ECE 14
n 2n n 2n
0 20=1 8 28=256
1 21=2 9 29=512
Kilo
2 22=4 10 210=1024
3 23=8 11 211=2048
4 24=16 12 212=4096
Mega
5 25=32 20 220=1M
Giga
6 26=64 30 230=1G
Tera
7 27=128 40 240=1T
GNIT ECE 15
 Decimal Addition

1 1 Carry
5 5
+ 5 5

1 1 0
= Ten ≥ Base
 Subtract a Base

GNIT ECE 16
 Column Addition

1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 = 61
+ 1 0 1 1 1 = 23

1 0 1 0 1 0 0 = 84

≥ (2)10

GNIT ECE 17
 Borrow a “Base” when needed
1 2 = (10)2
0 2 2 0 0 2
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 = 77
− 1 0 1 1 1 = 23

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 = 54

GNIT ECE 18
 Bit by bit
1 0 1 1 1
x 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1

1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0

GNIT ECE 19
Decimal Binary Octal Hex
00 0000 00 0
01 0001 01 1
02 0010 02 2
03 0011 03 3
04 0100 04 4
05 0101 05 5
06 0110 06 6
07 0111 07 7
08 1000 10 8
09 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
GNIT ECE 20
 There are two types of complements for each base-r system: the radix
complement and diminished radix complement.
 Diminished Radix Complement - (r-1)’s Complement
 Given a number N in base r having n digits, the (r–1)’s
complement of N is defined as:
(rn –1) – N
 Example for 6-digit decimal numbers:
 9’s complement is (rn – 1)–N = (106–1)–N = 999999–N
 9’s complement of 546700 is 999999–546700 = 453299
 Example for 7-digit binary numbers:
 1’s complement is (rn – 1) – N = (27–1)–N = 1111111–N
 1’s complement of 1011000 is 1111111–1011000 = 0100111
 Observation:
 Subtraction from (rn – 1) will never require a borrow
 Diminished radix complement can be computed digit-by-digit
 For binary: 1 – 0 = 1 and 1 – 1 = 0

GNIT ECE 21
 1’s Complement (Diminished Radix Complement)
 All ‘0’s become ‘1’s
 All ‘1’s become ‘0’s
Example (10110000)2
 (01001111)2
If you add a number and its 1’s complement …

10110000
+ 01001111
11111111

GNIT ECE 22
 Radix Complement
The r's complement of an n-digit number N in base r is defined as
rn – N for N ≠ 0 and as 0 for N = 0. Comparing with the (r  1) 's
complement, we note that the r's complement is obtained by adding 1 to
the (r  1) 's complement, since rn – N = [(rn  1) – N] + 1.
 Example: Base-10
The 10's complement of 012398 is 987602
The 10's complement of 246700 is 753300

 Example: Base-2
The 2's complement of 1101100 is 0010100
The 2's complement of 0110111 is 1001001

GNIT ECE 23
 2’s Complement (Radix Complement)
 Take 1’s complement then add 1
OR Toggle all bits to the left of the first ‘1’ from the right
Example:
Number:
1’s Comp.: 10110000 10110000
01001111
+ 1
01010000 01010000

GNIT ECE 24
 Subtraction with Complements
 The subtraction of two n-digit unsigned numbers
M – N in base r can be done as follows:

GNIT ECE 25
 Example 1.5
 Using 10's complement, subtract 72532 – 3250.

 Example 1.6
 Using 10's complement, subtract 3250 – 72532.

There is no end carry.

Therefore, the answer is – (10's complement of 30718) =  69282.

GNIT ECE 26
 Example 1.7
 Given the two binary numbers X = 1010100 and Y
= 1000011, perform the subtraction (a) X – Y ;
and (b) Y  X, by using 2's complement.

There is no end carry.

Therefore, the answer is
Y – X =  (2's complement
of 1101111) =  0010001.

GNIT ECE 27
 Subtraction of unsigned numbers can also be done by means of the (r 
1)'s complement. Remember that the (r  1) 's complement is one less
then the r's complement.
 Example 1.8
 Repeat Example 1.7, but this time using 1's complement.

There is no end carry,

Therefore, the answer is Y –
X =  (1's complement of
1101110) =  0010001.
GNIT ECE 28
 Example:
 Consider decimal 185 and its corresponding value
in BCD and binary:

 BCD addition

GNIT ECE 29
 Example:
 Consider the addition of 184 + 576 = 760 in BCD:

 Decimal Arithmetic: (+375) + (-240) = +135

Hint 6: using 10’s of BCD

GNIT ECE 30
 Other Decimal Codes

GNIT ECE 31
 Gray Code
 The advantage is that only
bit in the code group changes
in going from one number to
the next.
 Error detection.
 Representation of analog data.
000 001
 Low power design.

010 011
100 101

110 111

1-1 and onto!! GNIT ECE 32

 American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
Character Code

GNIT ECE 33
 ASCII Character Code

GNIT ECE 34
 Error-Detecting Code
 To detect errors in data communication and
processing, an eighth bit is sometimes added to
the ASCII character to indicate its parity.
 A parity bit is an extra bit included with a
message to make the total number of 1's either
even or odd.
 Example:
 Consider the following two characters and their
even and odd parity:

GNIT ECE 35
 BCD Code
 A number with k decimal digits
will require 4k bits in BCD.
 Decimal 396 is represented in
BCD with 12bits as 0011 1001
0110, with each group of 4 bits
representing one decimal digit.
 A decimal number in BCD is
the same as its equivalent
binary number only when the
number is between 0 and 9.
 The binary combinations 1010
through 1111 are not used and
have no meaning in BCD.

GNIT ECE 36
 1.5 Unit Distance Codes
The most common example of a unit distance code (Successive values differ by only one bit). See Table 2-10 page
52.

Binary code Gray code

GNIT ECE 37
Decimal Binary Gray
0 000 000
1 001 001
2 010 011
3 011 010
4 100 110
5 101 111
6 110 101
7 111 100
GNIT ECE 38
 The binary value B = bn…b2 b1 b0 can be
converted to Gray code G = gn…g2 g1 g0.
 With gi = bi+1  bi or G = B  B/2
Examples:
If B =110 then G = 110  011 = 101
If B = 10110111then
G = 10110111
 1011011
= 11101100

GNIT ECE 39
From gi = bi  bi+1 it follows that bi = gi  bi+1
 Example: Let G = 01011111. Then using b8 =
0.
 b7 = g7  b8 = 0 0=0
 b6 = g6  b7 = 1 0=1
 b5 = g5  b6 = 0 1=1
 b4 = g4  b5 = 1 1=0
 b3 = g3  b4 = 1 0=1
 b2 = g2  b3 = 1 1=0
 b1 = g1  b2 = 1 0=1
 b0 = g0  b1 = 1 1=0
 B = 01101010

GNIT ECE 40
 Hamming codes:
Hamming code not only provides the detection of a
bit error, but also identifies which bit is in error so
that it can be corrected. Thus hamming code is
called error detecting and error correcting code. The
code uses a no. of parity bits located at certain
positions in the code group. Hamming code can be
constructed for single error correction.
 Number of parity bits:
No. of parity bits dependent on the number of
information bits. If the no. of information bits is
designed x, the no. of parity bits, P is determined by
the following relationship.
2p > = x+p+1------------------- 1

GNIT ECE 41
 Example: Encode the binary word 1011 into seven bit even parity
hamming code.
 Sol: Step 1: Find the no. of parity bits required. Let P=3, then
Then 2 p= 2 3 = 8 and x+p+1=4+3+1=8
Three parity bits are sufficient
Therefore, Total code bits = 4+3 = 7
 Step 2: Construct a bit location table

Bit designation D7 D6 D5 P4 D3 P2
P1
Bit location 7 6 5 4 3 2
1
Binary location 111 110 101 100 011 010
001
Number
Information bits(Dn) 1 0 1 1
Parity bits(Pn) 0 0
1

GNIT ECE 42
 Step 3: Determine the parity bits
 For P1: Bit locations 3, 5, 7 have three 1’s
and therefore to have an even parity P1 must
be 1.
 For P2: Bit locations 3, 6,systems
Digital 7 have two 1’s and
therefore to have an even parity P2 must be
0.
 For P4: Bit locations 5, 6, 7 have two 1’s and
therefore to have an even parity P4 must be
0.
 Step 4: Enter the parity bits into the table to
form a seven bit hamming code = 1010101.
GNIT ECE 43
 American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (Refer to Table 1.7)
 A popular code used to represent information
sent as character-based data.
 It uses 7-bits to represent:
 94 Graphic printing characters.
 34 Non-printing characters.
 Some non-printing characters are used for text
format (e.g. BS = Backspace, CR = carriage
return).
 Other non-printing characters are used for
record marking and flow control (e.g. STX and
ETX start and end text areas).
GNIT ECE 44
 ASCII has some interesting properties:
 Digits 0 to 9 span Hexadecimal values 3016 to 3916
 Upper case A-Z span 4116 to 5A16
 Lower case a-z span 6116 to 7A16
 Lower to upper case translation (and vice versa)
occurs by flipping bit 6.

GNIT ECE 45
 Truth table  a tabular listing of the values of a
function for all possible combinations of values
on its arguments
 Example: Truth tables for the basic logic
operations:
AND OR NOT
X Y Z = X·Y X Y Z = X+Y X Z=X
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
GNIT ECE 46
  Invented by George Boole in 1854
 An algebraic structure defined by a set B = {0, 1}, together with two binary operators (+ and ·) and a
unary operator ( )

1. X+0= X 2. Identity element

X .1 =X
3. X+1 =1 4. X .0 =0
5. X+X =X 6. X .X = X Idempotence

7. X+X =1 8. X .X = 0 Complement

9. X=X Involution

10. X+Y = Y+X 11. XY = YX Commutative

12. (X + Y) + Z = X + (Y + Z) 13. (XY) Z = X(Y Z) Associative

14. X(Y + Z) = XY + XZ 15. X + YZ = (X + Y) (X + Z) Distributive

16. X+Y = X .Y 17. X .Y = X+Y DeMorgan ’s

GNIT ECE 47
 Boolean Algebra is defined in general by a set B that can
have more than two values
 A two-valued Boolean algebra is also know as Switching
Algebra. The Boolean set B is restricted to 0 and 1.
Switching circuits can be represented by this algebra.
 The dual of an algebraic expression is obtained by
interchanging + and · and interchanging 0’s and 1’s.
 The identities appear in dual pairs. When there is only one
identity on a line the identity is self-dual, i. e., the dual
expression = the original expression.
 Sometimes, the dot symbol ‘’ (AND operator) is not
written when the meaning is clear

GNIT ECE 48
 Example: F = (A + C) · B + 0
dual F = (A · C + B) · 1 = A · C + B
 Example: G = X · Y + (W + Z)
dual G =
(X+Y) · (W · Z) = (X+Y) · (W+Z)
 Example: H = A · B + A · C + B · C
dual H =

(A+B)
Unless it happens to ·be
(A+C) · (B+C) the dual of
self-dual,
an expression does not equal the expression
itself
 Are any of these functions self-dual? H is self-dual
(A+B)(A+C)(B+C)=(A+BC)(B+C)=AB+AC+BC
GNIT ECE 49
 The order of evaluation is:
1. Parentheses
2. NOT
3. AND
4. OR
 Consequence: Parentheses appear
around OR expressions
 Example: F = A(B + C)(C + D)
GNIT ECE 50
 A+A·B=A (Absorption Theorem)
Proof Steps Justification
A+A·B
=A·1+A·B Identity element: A · 1 = A
= A · ( 1 + B) Distributive
=A·1 1+B=1
=A Identity element

 Our primary reason for doing proofs is to learn:

 Careful and efficient use of the identities and theorems
of Boolean algebra, and
 How to choose the appropriate identity or theorem to
apply to make forward progress, irrespective of the
application.

GNIT ECE 51
 AB + AC + BC = AB + AC (Consensus Theorem)
Proof Steps Justification
= AB + AC + BC
= AB + AC + 1 · BC Identity element
= AB + AC + (A + A) · BC Complement
= AB + AC + ABC + ABC Distributive
= AB + ABC + AC + ACB Commutative
= AB · 1 + ABC + AC · 1 + ACB Identity element
= AB (1+C) + AC (1 + B) Distributive
= AB . 1 + AC . 1 1+X = 1
= AB + AC Identity element
GNIT ECE 52
 Minimization  Minimization (dual)
XY+XY=Y (X+Y)(X+Y) = Y
 Absorption
X+X=X  Absorption (dual)
X · (X + Y) = X
 Simplification
X+XY=X+Y  Simplification (dual)
 DeMorgan’s X · (X + Y) = X · Y
X +Y=X·Y
 DeMorgan’s (dual)
 X·Y=X+Y
GNIT ECE 53
X+Y=X·Y X·Y=X+Y
X Y X·Y X+Y X Y X+Y X · Y X·Y X+Y
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
 Generalized DeMorgan’s Theorem:
X1 + X2 + … + Xn = X1 · X2 · … · Xn
X1 · X2 · … · Xn = X 1 + X2 + … + X n

GNIT ECE 54
Use DeMorgan's Theorem:
1. Interchange AND and OR operators
2. Complement each constant and
literal
Example: Complement G = (a + bc)d
+e
G = (a (b + c) + d) e

GNIT ECE 55
 An application of Boolean algebra
 Simplify to contain the smallest number of
literals (variables that may or may not be
complemented)
= AB + ABCD + A C D + A C D + A B D
= AB + AB(CD) + A C (D + D) + A B D
= AB + A C + A B D = B(A + AD) +AC
= B (A + D) + A C (has only 5 literals)

GNIT ECE 56
 A B S C(arry)
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1

Notice that the carry results are the same as AND

C=AB
GNIT ECE 57
 Minterms and Maxterms

 Sum-of-Minterm (SOM) Canonical Form

 Product-of-Maxterm (POM) Canonical Form

 Representation of Complements of Functions

 Conversions between Representations

GNIT ECE 58
 Minterms are AND terms with every variable
present in either true or complemented form.
 Given that each binary variable may appear
normal (e.g., x) or complemented (there
x are 2 n

minterms for n variables.

 Example: Two variables (X and Y) produce
2 x 2 = 4 combinations:
(both normal)
XY(X normal, Y complemented)
X Y(X complemented, Y normal)
X Y(both complemented)
 Thus
X Ythere are four minterms of two variables.

GNIT ECE 59
 Maxterms are OR terms with every variable in
true or complemented form.
 Given that each binary variable may appear
normal (e.g., x) or complemented (e.g., x), there
are 2n maxterms for n variables.
 Example: Two variables (X and Y) produce
2 x 2 = 4 combinations:
X+Y(both normal)
X+Y(x normal, y complemented)
X+Y (x complement , y normal)
X+Y(both complement)

GNIT ECE 60
 Two variable minterms and maxterms.
x y Index Minterm Maxterm
0 0 0 m0 = x y M0 = x + y
0 1 1 m1 = x y M1 = x + y
1 0 2 m2 = x y M2 = x + y
1 1 3 m3 = x y M3 = x + y
 The minterm mi should evaluate to 1 for
each combination of x and y.
 Themaxterm is the complement of the
minterm
GNIT ECE 61
 x y z Index Minterm Maxterm
0 0 0 0 m0 = x y z M0 = x + y + z
0 0 1 1 m1 = x y z M1 = x + y + z
0 1 0 2 m2 = x y z M2 = x + y + z
0 1 1 3 m3 = x y z M3 = x + y + z
1 0 0 4 m4 = x y z M4 = x + y + z
1 0 1 5 m5 = x y z M5 = x + y + z
1 1 0 6 m6 = x y z M6 = x + y + z
1 1 1 7 m7 = x y z M7 = x + y + z
Maxterm Mi is the complement of minterm mi
Mi = mi and mi = Mi
GNIT ECE 62
 x y z F Minterm Maxterm
0 0 0 0 M0 = (x + y + z)
0 0 1 1 m1 = x y z
0 1 0 1 m2 = x y z
0 1 1 1 m3 = x y z
1 0 0 0 M4 = (x + y + z)
1 0 1 1 m5 = x y z
1 1 0 0 M6 = (x + y + z)
1 1 1 1 m7 = x y z

F = m1+m2+m3+m5+m7 = ∑(1, 2, 3, 5, 7) =
xyz+xyz+xyz+xyz+xyz
F = M0 · M4 · M6 = ∏(0, 4, 6) = (x+y+z)(x+y+z)(x+y+z)
GNIT ECE 63
 Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP) form:
equations are written as an OR of AND
terms
 Standard Product-of-Sums (POS) form:
equations are written as an AND of OR
terms
 Examples: A B C + A B C + B
SOP:

 POS:
(A + B) · (A + B + C )· C
 These “mixed” forms are neither SOP nor
POS (A B + C) (A + C)
A B C + A C (A + B)



GNIT ECE 64
Asum of minterms form for n variables can be
written down directly from a truth table.
 Implementation of this form is a two-level network of
gates such that:
 The first level consists of n-input AND gates
 The second level is a single OR gate
 Thisform often can be simplified so that the
corresponding circuit is simpler.

GNIT ECE 65
A Simplification Example:
F( A , B, C ) = S (1,4,5,6,7)
 Writing the minterm expression:
F = A B C + A B C + A B C + ABC + ABC
 Simplifying:
F = A B C + A (B C + B C + B C + B C)
F = A B C + A (B (C + C) + B (C + C))
F = A B C + A (B + B)
F=ABC+A
F=BC+A
 Simplified F contains 3 literals compared to
15
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 In
order for current to flow, both switches
must be closed
 Logic notation AB = C
(Sometimes AB = C)

A B C
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

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 Current flows if either switch is closed
 Logic notation A + B = C

A B C
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

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 Commutation
o A+B=B+A
o AB=BA

Same as

Same as

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AB BA

A+B B+A

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 Associative Property
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C

A  (B  C) = (A  B)  C

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Distributive Property
A + B  C = (A + B)  (A + C)
A+BC
A B C Q
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
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(A + B)  (A + C)

A B C Q
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
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 A  B = AB + AB
Accumulating our results: Binary addition is the
result of XOR plus AND
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 A Q

0 1
Logic: Q=A
1 0

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 Exclusive OR/ Exclusive NOR
 The eXclusive OR (XOR) function is an important Boolean
function used extensively in logic circuits.
 The XOR function may be;
 implemented directly as an electronic circuit (truly a gate)
or
 implemented by interconnecting other gate types (used
as a convenient representation)
 The eXclusive NOR function is the complement of the
XOR function
 By our definition, XOR and XNOR gates are complex
gates.
Chapter 2
- Part 3
76
 Uses for the XOR and XNORs gate include:
 Adders/subtractors/multipliers
 Counters/incrementers/decrementers
 Parity generators/checkers

 Definitions
 The XOR function is: XY = XY +XY
 The eXclusive NOR (XNOR) function, otherwise
known as equivalence is: XY = XY +XY
 Strictly speaking, XOR and XNOR gates do no
exist for more that two inputs. Instead, they
are replaced by odd and even functions.
Chapter 2
- Part 3
77
 Operator Rules: XOR XNOR
X Y X Y X Y (X  Y)

0 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1

 The XOR function means:

X OR Y, but NOT BOTH
 XOR is known as equivalence function, why?

Chapter 2
- Part 3
78
 The XOR function can be extended to 3 or more
variables. For more than 2 variables, it is called
an odd function or modulo 2 sum (Mod 2 sum),
not an XOR:
X  Y  Z = X Y Z+ X Y Z + X Y Z + X Y Z
 The complement of the odd function is the even
function.
0 =X
X  identities:
 The XOR X  1 =X
XX =0 XX =1
XY = Y X
(X  Y )  Z = X  (Y  Z ) = X  Y  Z
Chapter 2
- Part 3
79
 XOR symbol:

 XNOR symbol:

 Shaped symbols exist only for two inputs

Chapter 2
- Part 3
80
 1.12 Universal Gates

Nand and Nor gates are called Universal gates

as any Boolean function can be realized with the
help of Nand and Nor gates only

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For example, NOT, OR, AND gates can be realized
by only Nand gates.

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 Add inverters in two-level implementation
into the cost picture
 Attempt to “combine” inverters to reduce
the term count
 Attempt to reduce literal + term count by
factoring expression into POSOP or SOPOS

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F = A B’ + A C’ + B A’ + B C’ 15 inputs and 8 gates*

= A A’ + A B’ + A C’ + B A’ + B B’ + B C’
= A (A’ + B’ + C’) + B (A’ + B’ + C’)
7 inputs and 4 gates
A

B F

* Counting inverters (NOTS) as 1 input and 1 gate

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 F = AB + AD’ + BC + CD’ 12 inputs & 5 gates
= A(B + D’) + C(B + D’) 8 inputs & 5 gates

B
F
D

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