The Four Elements of Fire and Combustion Process

www.rkmfiles.
net/ 2012 lecture series

 source of warmth and light
 protection against enemies
 cause chemical changes to
foodstuffs to suit man’s body structure
 provides processes for modifying
chemicals into medicines
 provides heat to convert wood,
metals, and bones into domestic tools
or instruments for aggression
While the application of fire has served man’s needs its careless
and wanton use exact an enormous and dreadful toll from society
in life and property. Hence, man’s understanding of fire would
enable him to develop the technology of prevention and control to a
considerable advance state
www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series
1. The known earliest use of fire to mankind
was for –
A.shaping of weapons and tools
B.changing clay to pottery
C.keeping them warm and furnish light
D.cooking their food
Answer
C

2. In the process of combustion, for instance,
burning a wood or paper, what is being
burned?
A. The wood or paper on flame
B. The pyrolitic product
C. The vapor emitted from the burning
item
D. The fuel
Answer
C

FIRE is the rapid oxidation of a substance often with the
evolution of heat and light in varying degrees of
intensities.
Often a misconception is fire burns
the actual chair or piece of wood. It
is the GASSES given off by an object
that burns. HEAT causes objects to
give off these flammable gasses.
When the gasses reach their
IGNITION TEMPERATURE you see the
light given off during the oxidation
known as FIRE. Fire itself generates
more heat to the object and thus an
endless cycle begins until all of the
gasses have been exhausted from
an object. Then the remaining
particles or ash are what is left.
3. Ignition temperature is also the same as –
A. Heat
B. Fire Point
C. Flash point
D. Heat stroke
Answer
B

4. In general terms, what is the heat and
light that comes from the combustion of
substances?
A. Fire
B. Flame
C. Heat
D. Temperature
Answer
A

5. The combustion process is also the
burning process know as –
A. Controlled Fire
B. Free Radicals
C. Pyrolysis
D. Vaporization
Answer
C

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2010 rommel k manwong
6. Among the elements of fire, the most
important is –
A. Fuel
B. Heat
C. Temperature
D. Oxygen
Suggested
Answer
D

 Fuel -- For a fire to start there must be something to
burn. The physical state of the fuel may be gases
(natural gas, propane, butane, hydrogen, etc.);
liquids (gasoline, kerosene, turpentine, alcohol, paint,
varnish, lacquer, etc.) or solid (coal, wood, paper,
cloth, grease, etc.)
 Heat -- For a fire to start there must be a source of

ignition, usually heat or a spark. Heat sources include:
open flame, hot surfaces, sparks and arcs, friction-
chemical action, electrical energy and compression
of gases
 Oxygen -- A source of oxygen is needed.

Approximately 16% is required. Normal air contains
21% oxygen. Some fuels contain enough oxygen
within their make-up to support burning.

The four sides represent HEAT, FUEL,
OXYGEN, and UNINHIBITED CHAIN REACTIONS.
OXYGEN
TEMPERATURE
FUEL
UNINHIBITED CHAIN REACTION OF

COMBUSTION PROCESS

7. The fire triangle represent the glowing
mode of fire while the fire tetrahedron
represent the ___ of fire.
A. Charring Mode
B. Flaming Mode
C. Pyrolysis
D. Thermal decomposition
Answer
B

8. How much percent of oxygen is
needed to sustain combustion?
A. Approximately 16%
B. Must be more than 21%
C. At least 10%
D. Must not be less than 21%
Answer
A

Fire Triangle – represent the
GLOWING MODE of fire.
Fire Tetrahedron – represent the

FLAMING MODE of fire
If the process is confined with pressure it is called

EXPLOSION
If combustion propagates at supersonic speed, it
produced a DETONATION
09. What is produced when fire is in its
supersonic speed mode?
A. Explosion
B. Detonation
C. Vaporization
D. High Voltage
Answer
B

Input Heat

 Fuel
 Oxygen
 Proportioning
 Mixing
 Ignition continuity

10. What is also known as Pyrolysis?
A. Thermal decomposition of matter
B. The Burning Process
C. The Combustion Process
D. All of these
Answer
D

 FUEL is heated until its
temperature reaches its FIRE
POINT
 decomposition takes place –
moisture in the fuel is
converted to vapor,
 decomposition produces
combustible vapors that rise
to the surface of the fuel
(free radicals)
 FREE RADICALS undergo
combustion.

11. In the burning process, what are being
burned are gasses or vapors known as free
radicals. Among the following, which is not
or the least of free radicals?
A. Hydrogen gas
B. Carbon monoxide
C. Nitrogen
D. Inert gas
Answer
D

12. The constant temperature at which the
vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the
atmospheric pressure is called –
A. Kindling/Ignition Temperature
B. Boiling Point
C. Fire point
D. Vapor density
Answer
B

 Specific Gravity – the ratio of the weight of a solid or liquid
substance to the weight of an equal volume of water.
 Vapor density – the weight of a volume of pure gas composed
to the volume of dry air at the same temperature and pressure.
 Vapor Pressure – the force exerted by the molecules on the
surface of a liquid.
 Temperature – the measure of the degree of thermal agitation
of molecules.
 Boiling Point – the constant temperature at which the vapor
pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
 Ignition/Kindling temperature – the minimum temperature at
which the substance must be heated in order to initiate
combustion.
 Fire point – the lowest temperature of a liquid in an open
container at which vapors are evolved fast enough to support
combustion.
 Flash point – the temperature at which a flammable liquid forms
a vapor-air mixture that ignites (mixture with in the explosive
range).
13. What do we call, in the study of fires,
changes whereby heat is absorbed
before a reaction takes place?
A. Endothermic
B. Exothermic
C. Oxidation
D. Flame
Answer
A

 Endothermic Reactions – changes whereby
energy (heat) is absorbed or is added before
the reaction takes place.
 Exothermic Reactions – those that release or give
off energy (heat) thus they produce substances
with less energy than the reactants.
 Oxidation – a chemical change that is
exothermic, a change in which combustible
material (fuel) and an oxidizing agent (air), react.
Example of oxidation is combustion which is the
same as actual burning (rapid oxidation)
 Flames – flames are incandescent (very
bright/glowing with intense heat) gases. It is a
combustion product and a manifestation of fire
when it is in its gas-phased combustion.

14. ______ is energy in motion.
A. Thermal
B. Oxidation
C. Flame
D. Heat
Answer
D

 Fire gases - chemical composition of the
fuel, percent of oxygen present, and the
temperature of the fire.
 Flame - The luminous body of a burning

gas. It is the manifestation of fire when the
fire is in its gas phased combustion.
 Heat - a form of energy generated by the

transmission of some other form of energy.
 Smoke - a visible product of incomplete

combustion, a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen,
CO, CO2 and finely divided particles released
from the burning material.

As a result of combustion, the following are
produced:
 CO
 CO2
 Hydrogen gas
 Nitrogen
 Other poisonous gases
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S), Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN),
Hydrogen Chloride (HCL)
 Luminous
 As to color
 Non-Luminous
 Premixed
 As to Air Mixture
 Diffused
 Laminar  As to Smoothness
 Turbulent

15. The kind of flame that is disturbed
and thus produce rugged edges rather
than being smooth is called __.
A. Luminous Flame
B. Premixed Flame
C. Turbulent Flame
D. Diffused Flame
Answer
C

16. The best reason why a luminous flame is
colored orange-red is due to ______.
A. incomplete combustion of matter
B. the chemical component of the
burning material
C. carbon monoxide
D. slow input of oxygen
Answer
A

 Incipient Phase - beginning stage
of fire.
 Free Burning Phase - burning stage

whereby materials or structures are
burning in the presence of adequate
oxygen supply.
 Smoldering Phase - burning stage

wherein flame ceases but dense
smoke and heat completely fill the
confined room.
17. The fireman has noticed an accelerated
burning process and estimated a temperature of
about 800-1000 F at the base of fire in the
burning house. This observation leads to
conclusion that the fire is in its __ stage.
A. Incipient
B. Free Burning
C. Smoldering
D. Controlled
Answer
B

 FUEL is matter and matter exist in three
physical states: solid, liquid and gas.
Solids melt to become liquids, and these

may vaporize and become gases.
The basic rule is that at high enough

temperature all fuels can be converted to
gases. And each of the physical states
exhibits different physical and chemical
properties that directly affect a fuel’s
combustibility
18. Which of the following does not fall
under Class A fires?
A. None of these
B. Exploding gas depot
C. Burning nipa hut
D. Forest fire
Answer
B

Each of the physical states exhibits different physical and
chemical properties that directly affect a fuel’s
combustibility
 Solid - molecules are closely packed

together.
 Liquid - molecules are loosely packed.
 Gas - molecules are free to moved.

 Class A Fuels – they are ordinary combustible materials that
are usually made of organic substances such as wood and
wood-based products. It includes some synthetic or inorganic
materials like rubber, leather, and plastic products.
 Class B Fuels – materials that are in the form of flammable

liquids such as alcohol, acidic solutions, oil, liquid petroleum
products, etc.
 Class C Fuels – they are normally fire resistant materials such

as materials used on electrical wiring and other electrical
appliances.
 Class D Fuels – they are combustible metallic substances such

as magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium and potassium.

19. What is the term used to refer to organic
matters like wood, garbage and animal
manure that can be use to produce
energy?
A. Plastic
B. Biomass
C. Coal
D. Fossils
Answer
B

20. What do we call plastic fuel that
contains nitro cellulose?
A. Pyroxylin
B. Pyrolytic
C. Pyrolyzed
D. None of the above
Answer
A

 Biomass – organic matters like wood, garbage and
animal manure that can be use to produce energy.
 Fabrics and Textiles – A fiber is a very fine thin strand or
thread like object. Fabrics are twisted or woven fibers.
And textiles are machine woven or knitted fabric.
 Plastics – are included as ordinary fuels except those
materials of or containing cellulose nitrate (pyroxylin).
 Coal – a black, combustible, mineral solid resulting
from the partial decomposition of matter under
varying degrees of temperature. They are used as fuels
in the production of coal gas, water gas, and many
coal compounds. They are also used to heat buildings
and to provide energy for industrial machinery.
 Peat – It is partially decayed plant matter found in
swamps called bags and used as a fuel chiefly in areas
where coal and oil are scarce.

A. Bulky B. Finely Divided C. Dust
1. Coal 1. Plastic 1. Saw dust
2. Wood 2. Paper 2. Sugar
3. Wax 3. Cork 3. Grain
4. Grease 4. Leather 4. others
In terms of flammability, solid fuels are:
Pyrolyzable solid fuels – include many of the ordinary accepted combustibles: wood,
paper and so on. The vapors released by their chemical decomposition support flaming
combustion. This exemplifies a gas-to-gas reaction: the vapors released mixed with
oxygen in the air to produce a flame.
Non-pyrolyzable solid fuels – solid fuels that are difficult to ignite. A common example
is charcoal. Chemical decomposition does not occur because there are no pyrolyzable
elements present. No vapors are released. The glowing combustion that results is an
example of a gas-to-solid reaction.
Solids
› Have definite volume and shape.
› In order for combustion to occur, it must
reach ignition temperature for the solid to
liquefy and then vaporize into the
gaseous state.
› During oxidation, it is the gaseous form
that is capable of combining with
oxygen.

Liquids
› Assumes the shape of its container and may
diffuse.
› It has a definite volume and may be
compressed slightly.
› Like a solid, in order for combustion to occur,
sufficient heat must be present to vaporize it
into the gaseous state.

 Class I-A Liquids include those liquids having flash points
below 22.8°C, and having a boiling point below 37.8°C
 Class I-B Liquids include those liquids having flash points

below 22.8°C, and having a boiling point at or above
37.8°C
 Class I-C Liquids include those liquids having flash points

at or above 22.8°C, and below thirty seven and eight
37.8°C
21. What is the flash point of a liquid?
A. 82 degrees celcius
B. 88 degrees celcius
C. 79 degrees celcius
D. 69 degrees celcius
Answer
C

Flash Point of a Liquid. Refers to the lowest
temperature a liquid at which sufficient vapor is
given off to form an ignitable mixture with air, near
the surface of the liquid or within the vessel used,
as determined by appropriate laboratory test such
as 79°C in accordance with the Standard
Method of Test for Flash Point by the Tag Closed
Tester, ASTM D 56-61.

 Gasoline
 Alcohol
 Lacquer
 Cod liver oil
 Kerosene
 Paint
 Olive oil
 Varnish
 Turpentine

22. What kind of fuel has no definite
shape or volume?
A. Liquid
B. Gas
C. Solid
D. All of the above
Answer
B

Gases
› Have no definite shape or volume and assumes
the shape and volume of its container.
› A gas will spread and eventually equalize its
distribution throughout a fixed room or container.
› Combustion in this state needs no heating and
only requires the proper mixture of oxygen and an
ignition source.

 Natural gas
 Propane
 Butane
 Hydrogen
 Acetylene
 Carbon monoxide

 In order for a fire to occur, a rapid oxidation
reaction must take place.
 A fuel must be present and mix with the
oxygen and produce heat energy.
 A fire is an exothermic reaction because it
produces heat.
23. Air has approximately __ % of oxygen,
which is also the needed amount to
begin reacting with fuel.
A. 28
B. 16
C. 81
D. 21
Answer
D

IN AIR
› The air we breathe contains approximately 21% oxygen.
 This is normally considered an ample amount of oxygen to
begin reacting with the fuel.
› If the level of oxygen source drops below 16%, the burning
process slows and may self extinguish or smolder.
 This is called an oxygen controlled or ventilation limited fire
and is dependent upon finding another source of oxygen.
› If a fuel is present in an oxygen-enriched atmosphere, the
reaction will become more vigorous and the combustion
process will be accelerated.
 This enriched environment may be as simple as a person
blowing on a fire to an area where medical oxygen is
present.

Flammable Limits
› Mixtures of flammable gases or vapors with air will
combust only when they are within particular
ranges of concentration.
› The ratio of the gas or vapor to air is called its
flammable or explosive limit.
› Flammable limits are divided into 3 areas;
 lower flammable limit,
 upper flammable limit and
 ideal or stoichiometric.

› If there is more air than gas or vapor then it is
considered being in the lower flammable limit
or sometimes called fuel controlled.
› When there is more gas or vapor than air, then it
is considered as being in the upper flammable
limit or sometimes called air controlled.
› The ideal area is where the fuel (vapor or gas) is
in balance with the air.
 It is rare to see this occur in most fires except in
certain types of gas fires.
› Increases in temperature and pressure will
reduce the lower limit and increase the upper
limit making the ideal area broader.
100% by volume 0% by volume
Increasing air content

No combustion possible
due to too litle oxygen
(Mixture too strong) “Air Controlled”
Limited combustion possible
around ignition sources
Upper explosion limit (UEL)

Increasing fuel content
Explosion occurs as
soon as ignition is
applied
Lower explosion limit (LEL)
No explosion
due to too litle gas “Fuel Controlled”
(Mixture too weak)
0% by volume !00% by volume

Gas content Air content
24. What is called the behavior of fire
where fire ball maybe produces?
A. Backdraft
B. Flashover
C. Biteback
D. Flashfire
Answer
B

Dangerous Behavior of Fire
 Backdraft – it is the sudden and rapid (violent) burning of
heated gases in a confined area that occurs in the form of
explosion. This may occur because of improper ventilation. If
a room is not properly ventilated, highly flammable vapors
maybe accumulated such that when a door or window is
suddenly opened, the room violently sucks the oxygen from
the outside and simultaneously, a sudden combustion occur,
which may happen as an explosion (combustion explosion).
 Flashover – it is the sudden ignition of accumulated radical

gases produced when there is incomplete combustion of
fuels. It is the sudden burning of free radicals, which is initiated
by a spark or flash produced when temperature rises until
flash point is reached. When accumulated volume of radical
gases suddenly burns, there will be a very intense fire that is
capable of causing flames to jump at a certain distance in
the form of fireball.

 Biteback - a fatal condition that takes
place when the fire resists extinguishment
operations and become stronger and
bigger instead.
 Flash Fire – better known as dust
explosion. This may happen when the
metal post that is completely covered
with dust is going to be hit by lightning.
The dust particles covering the metal
burn simultaneously thus creating a
violent chemical reaction that produces
a very bright flash followed by an
explosion.

 Heat is the energy possessed by a fuel due to its
molecular activity.
 This heat energy has to exceed the minimum level of

the fuel to release fuel vapors and cause ignition.
 The measurement of intensity is called temperature.
 Its heating rate is measured as kilojoules (kj).
 Its heating intensity is measured by F*,C*, K*, R*

25. 100*C is equivalent to __ *F.
A. 212 degrees Fahrenheit
B. 312 degrees Fahrenheit
C. 412 degrees Fahrenheit
D. 122 degrees Fahrenheit
Answer
A

°C °F Description
100 212 Water boils

40 104 Hot Bath
37 98.6 Body temperature
30 86 Beach weather
21 70 Room temperature
10 50 Cool Day
0 32 Freezing point of water
-18 0 Very Cold Day
-40 -40 Extremely Cold Day (and the same number!)
(bold are exact)

°F to °C
Deduct 32, then multiply by 5,
then divide by 9
°C to °F
Multiply by 9, then divide by 5,
then add 32

Heat Sources
› Heat is needed to start the chemical
reaction.
› Heat source can be provided by a wide
variety of means.
› Some heat sources are designed and
intended to produce heat, such a stove
or a heater.
› Some sources of heat for ignition may
result from a malfunction, such as an
overheated motor or electrical arcing.
26. When the heat source which provided a
destructive fire is from cooking appliances
that involves combustible cooking media
such as vegetable or animal oil, the class of
fire is considered as _________.
A. Class K fire
B. Class D fire
C. Class B fire
D. No Class
Answer
A

Heat Sources
› Chemical – Produced as the result of rapid oxidation.
› Mechanical – Produced by rubbing objects together,
friction.
› Electrical – Produced from over current, arcing, shorting
or other electrical malfunctions.
› Compressed Gas – The molecular activity of a gas is
greatly increased when it is heated.
› Natural – Lightning, solar
› Nuclear – Heat energy is produced when atomic
particles are split and fused.

27. Which of these best describe
conduction?
A. Heat transfer through liquid
B. Heat transfer through heat wave
C. Heat transfer through solid material
D. Heat transfer through air motion
Answer
C

1. - the transmission of heat
through an object/conductor.
2. - the transmission through the
discharge and spread of heat from a heated or
burning source.
3 - the transmission of heat by
the moving currents of liquid or gas.
4. - fire spreads along or
through a burning material by flame contact.
28. In the study of the fire tetrahedron,
which is called the 4th element of fire?
A. Pyrolysis
B. Combustion process
C. The Chain reaction
D. Thermal decomposition of matter
Answer
C

› As fuel is heated, pyrolysis, a chemical decomposition
of matter, occurs in the material.
› This action may take place in the absence of oxygen
and vapors released may include both combustible and
non-combustible gases.
› Once oxygen begins mixing with these gases they form
other chemical mixtures.
 These gases will only burn when the fuel to air ratio is
within certain limits.
 This is a critical time in the fire process in that the
resultant gases must be within these limits in order to
continue.
› As the process continues, the heat produced will
continue to heat the fuel, producing more vapors.
› These vapors again chemically break down into
smaller particles to mix with the oxygen, then burn,
and produce heat that continues to heat the fuel
and so on.
› This cycle will continue until all the available fuel
and/or oxidant has been consumed or until the
flame has been extinguished.

FUEL
PYROLYSIS
Heat input Oxidations
Stops
1
AIR 3
Critical
Time
LIFE CYCLE OF FIRE
Ignition
Proper Proportioning 4 Continuity
Mixing

Factors Affecting
the Burning Process

29. What is called the total quantity of
combustible contents of a building, space,
or fire area including interior finish which
can totally affect the combustion process?
A. Fuel load
B. Fire origin
C. Humidity
D. Physical characteristic
Answer
A

Fuel load
› The total quantity of combustible contents of a
building, space, or fire area, including interior
finish and trim expressed in heat units or the
equivalent weight in wood.
› The total amount of combustible material in a

defined space. Fuel load is quantified in heat units
or in its equivalent weight in wood. Excessive fuel
load for what would normally be expected in a
space of that type can be an indicator of
incendiary fire
A perpetrator attempted to accelerate fire spread and burning by
moving combustible materials into the fire area

› The fire growth rate is controlled by:
 Physical and Chemical Properties of the
Fuel
 Fuel condition
 Fuel configuration
 Compartmentation/ventilation

30. Generally, when the moisture content of
fuel is above 15%, ignition is difficult and
requires heat in a prolonged period of time.
What is being described?
A. Fuel load
B. Oxygen content
C. Fuel condition
D. Class of the fuel
Answer
C

Fuel Conditions
› Moisture content of Fuel and its equilibrium
point
 A fuel when exposed to air will become in
equilibrium with the air and have the same
moisture content as the air.
 The amount of exposure and age would also
effect its wetness or dryness.
 This will effect the fuels ignition temperature and
the rate that it burns.

 Generally when the moisture content is
above 15%, ignition is rather difficult, even
when it is exposed to heat for a prolonged
period of time.
(Equilibrium = fuel wetness vs. humidity)
 Dry fuels burn readily

 Wet fuels must first have excess moisture
evaporated before it can be raised to its
ignition temperature

Configuration of Fuel
 The combustion of solid fuels is more
complex than the combustion of a liquid or
gas.
 Fuels take on many shapes and can be
divided into many forms.
 The severity and the duration of the fire will
be dependant upon;
 Arrangement and/or Placement
 How a fuel is normally configured in a structure will
determine how it will burn and how it will affect
other fuels present in the structure.

Physical characteristics
 A fuel must be present in a suitable
condition to be ignited.
 An example would be a heavy
petroleum distillate spread on a floor will
not easily ignite, however by placing a
wick in it, the wick will easily ignite and
draw the fuel to the flame.

Physical characteristics
Level of ignition on the fuel

Size of ignition source relative to
mass/surface area of fuel
The location of ignition on the fuel will
determine the rate of fire development.
(An example would be a fire starting on the
arm rest of a chair verses starting at the
bottom of the chair) (As fire burns upward it
will progress faster if the fuel is above it,
especially in the earlier stages)
Amount - the total amount of fuel present
must be balanced with the amount of air in
the area in order to continue the burning
process.

An example would be
a fire starting on the
arm rest of a chair
verses starting at the
bottom of the chair.
As fire burns upward it

will progress faster if the
fuel is above it,
especially in the earlier
stages.

Physical properties
 Density - the measure of a substance’s mass
per unit volume.
This effects the fuels ability to transfer and
spread heat energy.
Low density materials burn faster than high
density materials.
 Heat capacity - the amount of heat
energy required to change a materials
temperature by one degree.
This effects the time required to
transfer heat.
 Thermal conductivity - conducts heat
readily
 How a material will conduct heat
determines how rapid the flame will
spread across the surface of a
material.
 Heat loss
 If the thermal insulation between
two materials is increased, the flame
spread rate will increase since less
energy would be lost from the
burning area.
31. The abnormal decomposition of
matter through fire is called __.
A. Thermodynamics
B. Thermal Balance
C. Thermal Imbalance
D. Pyrolitic Characteristic
Answer
C

32. During the stages of fire, the rate of fire
spread is determined by the heat release
rate of a burning fuel. This statement is __.
A. Correct
B. Incorrect
C. Sometimes correct
D. Sometimes incorrect
Answer
A

Heat release rate
 During the early stages of a fire, the
rate of fire spread is determined by
the heat release rate of a burning
fuel.
(An example could best be illustrated by
burning wood shavings and a block of
wood of the same weight)
The wood shavings would ignite and burn
much faster than the wooden block.
Item Approx. Power Usage/Peak Heat Release Rate
Burning cigarette 5W
Standard “A” Light Bulbs 15 to 200 W
Burning match 80 W
Coffee maker, hair dryer, toaster 500 to 1500 W or
0.5 to 1.5 kW
Burning Coffee Maker 40 kW
Small Trash Can, Trash Bag Fires 50 to 300 kW
Burning Upholstered Chair 80 kW to 2.5 MW
Burning Upholstered Sofa 3,000 kW or 3 MW
Burning Christmas Tree 1.6 MW to 5.2 MW

210s 0 kW 300s 5 kW 360s 10 kW
460s 25 kW 560s 40 kW 610s 40 kW

Note from the picture…
“The higher the energy in the

combustion process, the faster is the
heat release rate”

Ventilation
› The air/oxygen content and leakage in a
structure will control the amount of burning until a
change in ventilation occurs.
› This change can be from any opening that will
allow entry and/or exit of air.
› It may be natural, mechanical, accidental or
intentional.

› The direction of the airflow will
cause the fire to spread in that
direction.
› Most of the time this direction is
the same as the outside airflow
that is caused by atmospheric
conditions (wind).

› There are three basic factors that
control ventilation:
 General Conditions
 Such as open/closed of doors, windows, and
vents.
 In addition, the general condition of the
structure, type of materials and construction
techniques would determine the amount of air
leakage into or out of a building.

 Conditions that the fire creates as it
intensifies and moves through the
structure.
 Many times these openings allow a fresh
source of air to the fire and will intensify the
fire in that area
Fire fighters can create ventilation

changes to the fire by creating
additional openings and sometimes by
“pushing the fire” with hose streams.

33. What common condition maybe
produced when air suddenly enters a non-
ventilated area where carbon and other
products of fire are confined?
A. Backdraft
B. Fireball
C. Flashover
D. Intensity
Answer
A

Weather
› Temperature, humidity and air/oxygen content

& movement (wind) varies every day and the
norms are different in every part of the world.
› Even the temperatures that people maintain in
their structures are different.
› Temperature or heat energy initially starts the
fire. It can -
 Intensifies the fire,
 spreads the fire and,
 Produces greatest barrier to extinguishment.

› Temperatures effect ignition temperature
and vapor to air ratios.
› Humidity norms are different in every part
of the world, and will effect the ignition
temperature and the rate that the fuel
burns.
› Air movement outside verses inside
determines fire flow through a structure
unless tampered with.
› In normal ambient conditions the oxygen
content is approximately 21%.
› The fire scene must be evaluated to see if
anything could affect this percentage
› To sustain the fire, it must have at least 15%.
Qualify ……………..
 Is or was anything present to make this
percentage vary?
 Is or was there anything that increases or
decreases air velocity?
 At what point during the progress of the fire did
either or both of the above occur?
 Is there any substance present in the fuel that
through decomposition or burning produces
additional oxygen?

34. Which of the following is not a means
of measuring temperature?
A. Rankin
B. Kelvin
C. Compass
D. Celcius
Answer
C

35. There are three primary effects that
structure geometry will have on fire,
except?
A. Ventilation
B. Fuel Load
C. Ability to retain heat
D. Humidity
Answer
D

Structure geometry
› Once the fire has started in a
compartment, such as a room or
building, the fire’s development will be
determined by compartment’s
configuration and construction.
› There are three primary effects that
this will have on the fire;
 ventilation,
 ability to retain heat,
 and the additional fuel load of the
compartment.

Human factors
› Every person has unique daily living habits that
are a product of their environment, heritage and
personal preferences.
 Examples are housekeeping, choice and
arrangement of furnishings, and the interior
environmental conditions.
 Even if there were two identical structures, the
building habitants would have different furnishings
in different places, and different configurations of
doors and windows, and many other differences
that effect the progress of a fire.

› In addition, humans will react
differently to a fire.
 Once the fire becomes observable,
people will do things that impact the fire
development.
 Changing ventilation
 Leaving a door open when leaving
 Breaking a window
 Spreading the Fire
 Moving the fire source
 Attempts to control the fire

PART TWO
BASIC FIRE INVESTIGATION

In the Philippines, the Bureau of fire Protection is
the main government agency responsible for
the prevention and suppression of all
destructive fires on buildings, houses and other
structures, forest, land transportation vehicles
and equipments, ships or vessels docked at
piers or major seaports, petroleum industry
installation, plane crashes and other similar
incidents, as well as the enforcement of the Fire
Code and other related laws. It has the major
power to investigate all causes of fires and
necessary, file the proper complaints with the
proper authority that has jurisdiction over the
case (R.A. no. 6975, sec. 54).

Bureau of Fire Protection was created by virtue of
RA 6975 primarily to perform the following functions:
1. Be responsible for the prevention and suppression of all

destructive fires on:
• Buildings, houses and other structures;
• Forest;
• Land transportation vehicles and equipment;
• Ships or vessels docked at piers or wharves
anchored in major sea ports;
• Petroleum industry installations;
• Land transportation vehicles and equipment;
• Plane crashes; and

• Other similar incidents.
Bureau of Fire Protection was created by virtue of
RA 6975 primarily to perform the following functions:
2. Be responsible for the enforcement of the Fire Code of

the Philippines (P.D. 1185 / RA 9514) and other related laws;
3. Shall have the power to investigate all causes of fires
and if necessary, file the proper complaint with the city
or provincial prosecutor who has jurisdiction over the case;
4. In time of national emergency, all elements of the BFP

shall upon direction of the President, assist the AFP
in meeting the national emergency; and
5. Shall establish at least one (1) fire station with adequate
personnel, fire fighting facilities and equipment in every
provincial capital, city and municipality subject to
standard rules and regulations as may be promulgated
by the DILG.
1. Fire Prevention
a. Fire Safety Information Campaign
b. Fire Safety Inspection
2. Fire Suppression
a. Fire Fighting and Control
b. Fire Investigation
3. Emergency Medical and Rescue
Services
a. Medical and Dental Services
b. Search and Rescue Services
4. Special Programs / Projects
a. Fire Safety Education Drive
b. Kiddie / Junior Fire Marshal
c. Other Operations
Fire Chief
Internal Senior Personal Public Internal Legal Chaplain’s

Audit Executive Aide Info Affairs Ofc
Svcs Services Services
Assistant Office Svcs
Deputy Chief Deputy Chief

for Admin for Opn
Chief
Directorial
Staff
DIRECTORIAL STAFFS
Directorate for Directorate for
Directorate for Directorate for Directorate for Directorate for
Plans and Fire Safety and
Administration Comptrollership Logistics Operations
Standards Dev’t Prevention
Human Fire
Financial Plans & Logistics Fire
Resource Intelligence &
Manageme Programs Suppression &
Management nt Investigation Division
Div Operations Div
Div Div
Div
Human Health &
Cash Fire Science Fire Safety Supply
Resource Emergency
Manageme & Standards Enforcement Manageme
nt nt Management
Development Dev’t Div Div
Div Div
Div Div
Special
Operation
Div
The fire safety plan is a very
important part of the overall fire and life
safety program within the building.
Its purpose is to prevent potential
injuries and deaths and to protect your
residential and/or company from damage
or loss due to fire.
 Fires should be investigated to determine
the cause of the fire in order to prevent
similar occurrences. The determination of
the origin and cause of fire is arrived at only
after a thorough investigation. Since basic
investigation is prelude to the discovery of
the true cause of the fire, an understanding
of the chemistry of fire and its attendant
behavior should be a concern for
successful investigation.
 Fire destroys evidence
 If it is Arson, it is planned, motivated and
committed discreetly.
 Rarely can there be an eyewitness in
Arson cases.

36. What are called the “eyes and ears”
of fire investigators in the case of arson?
A. Witness
B. Complainant
C. Firemen
D. Fire setter
Answer
C

FIRE INVESTIGATION
The totality of the process involving the
determination of whether or not a fire
occurrence is accidental, incendiary or
caused by natural causes.
ARSON INVESTIGATION
The art of probing and analyzing an
incendiary/intentional fires which is
intended to identify, locate, and
ultimately prosecute the perpetrator.

37. Which of the following law punishes
the crime of arson?
A. PD 1613
B. PD 1744
C. Revised Penal Code
D. All of the Above
Answer
D

Previously, arson was defined and penalized under nine
different articles of the Revised Penal Code:
 Article 320 (destructive arson)
 Article 321 (other forms of arson)
 Article 322 (cases of arson not included in the preceding
articles)
 Article 323 (arson of property of small value)
 Article 324 (crimes involving destruction)
 Article 325 (burning one’s own property to commit arson)
 Article 326 (setting fire to property exclusively owned by
the offender
 Article 326-a (in cases where death resulted as a
consequence of arson)
 Article 326-b (prima facie evidence of arson).

On March 7, 1979, citing certain
inadequacies that impede the
successful enforcement and prosecution
of arsonists, then President Ferdinand E.
Marcos issued Presidential Decree (P.D)
No. 1613.
(P.D. 1613 supplanted the penal code

provisions on arson)

 On November 11, 1980, the law on arson was
again revisited via P.D. No. 1744. The new law
expanded the definition of destructive arson
by way of reinstating Article 320 of the Revised
Penal Code. The amendatory legislation also
paved the way for the reimposition of the
capital punishment on destructive arsonists.
 When Republic Act (R.A.) No. 7659 (An Act to

Impose the Death Penalty on Certain Heinous
Crimes) was passed on December 13, 1993,
Article 320 again underwent a revision.
 With the repeal of the Death Penalty Law

on June 24, 2006 through R.A. No. 9346, arson is
no longer a capital offense.

38. Which of the following illustrates the
crime of arson?
A. Simultaneous fire
B. Faulty electric wiring
C. Unexplained explosion
D. Thick reddish smoke
Answer
A

Factors involved to be established to
complete a Fire Investigation:
1. The “WHAT” of investigation – Cause that

which fire start.
2. The “WHY” of investigation – Reason which

led to the cause of a fire (a motive leading
to the action).
Both are required to classify the fire and to

provide guidance in establishing corrective
action to preclude a recurrence of the
incident.

39. In studying the motives of arsonist,
expert suggested that the most common
motive why people put things on fire is _.
A. Reward
B. Monetary gain
C. Revenge
D. Covering up another crime
Answer
B

40. A type of pyromaniac who set a
building on fire then pretend he
discovers it?
A. Abnormal youth
B. Drug addict
C. Hero type
D. Sexual pervert
Answer
C

41. Which of the following is synonymous
with intentional fire or arson?
A. Simultaneous fire
B. Pyromanianism
C. Dragon fire
D. Incendiary fire
Answer
D

 Natural (Innocent fire) – fire cause
naturally without human intervention;
 Accidental – fire causes where human

action is involved directly or indirectly;
 Arson (intentional fire) – fire cause as a

result of the willful and criminal action of
person/s;
 Unknown fire – fires which are not

classified as to cause.
 Is a crime against property.
 The willful and malicious burning of another’s property or the burning of one’ own
property with intent to injure or defraud the insurer of that property.
 The burning of all kinds of buildings, structures, aircraft, watercraft, crops, forest land
and personal property.
1. That the fire was ignited willfully and maliciously to destroy buildings or property
(of human origin, by incendiary means, not natural or accidental).
2. The burning actually occurred (property need not be destroyed, scorching is

sufficient).
3. That the property is of another, or in the case of one’s own property the intent
was to injure or defraud the insurer.
4. That any person who caused the fire to be set, is aided, counseled or procured
the burning is equally responsible as the actual fire setter.

 Burning - there must be burning or scorching/charring,
i.e., the fiber of the wood must be destroyed or
decomposed, its identity or physical state changed.
 Willfulness - the act was done purposely and with
intention.
 Motive - the moving cause that induces the
commission of the crime.
 Malice - it denotes hatred or a desire for revenge.
 Intent - the purpose or design with which the act is
done and involves the will to do the act

42. Motive is an element in the crime of
arson.
A. True
B. False
C. Partially true
D. Partially false
Answer
B

MOTIVES FOR ARSON
The common motives in arson are:

- Concealment of Other Crimes
- Defrauding the Insurance Company
Types of Insurance fraud arsons:
1. Quick profit
2. Revenge, Spite or Anger
3. Mental Illness
4. Vandalism

It is known as the
Revised Fire Code of the

Philippines of 2008
Repealing PD 1185
Approved Dec. 19, 2008

1. The share of the bureau in the Fire Code
Fee Collections and the creation of Fire
Protection Trust Fund to support the
modernization of the BFP;
2. There is a provision giving police

power to the BFP in issuing closure
order for building or structure
declared as fire hazards;
3. Another significant provision of the law is
the increase in administrative fines from the
old rate of P12,000 to P50,000 for violating
the provisions of RA 9514 and increase of
penalty from P20,000 to P100,000 fines for
failure to correct the deficiency or abate
the hazard with punishment of
imprisonment of 1 year to 6 years aside from
paying damages to victims if the violation
leads to loss of life and damage to
property;
4. The law also imposes accountability on
public official or employees for
negligence, malfeasance or
misfeasance in the performance of their
sworn duties;
5. Also the law provides that in times of
fire operations, fire volunteers shall be
under the direct operational control of
BFP fire ground commanders.
Type:
1. Residence
2. Business establishment/Nonresident
3. Open field
4. Occupants or anyone present at the time of or prior to
the fire.
* Location
* Date and Time (day of week) reported:
* Point of Origin
* Conditions that indicate an arson may be involved:
* Isolation:
* Searching a fire scene:
* Interview:
* Photography of a fire scene:
* Motive:
* Other follow-up investigation techniques:
1. Regional Fire Marshal
2. Provincial Fire Marshal
3. District Fire Marshal
4. City Fire Marshal
5. Municipal Marshal
6. Fire/Arson Investigator
Initial Actions During Fire Alarms:
A. Immediate response of the nearest Fire Station/Sub-Station crew upon receiving the
alarm together with the designated investigator is required and mandatory.
B. Coordination with local police authorities and Barangay officials concerned must be
done to ensure smooth flow of traffic, crowd control and security of the area from looters
and the transfer of fire victims to a safer place.
C. Fire investigator/s on case shall cordon the place and secure the area by posting guards
to prevent unauthorized person/s until all essential evidences have been collected for
examination by the assigned/duly authorized evidence collector.
D. Point of origin must be established, cordoned and properly secured until the investigation
has been completed. Clearance from the City/Municipal Fire Marshal/concerned
officers must be obtained prior to the clearing of the area.
E. BFP Intelligence Branch/Unit must extend assistance if necessary for collation of
information relative to fire incident.
F. Information gathered must be evaluated to determine the reliability and value in relation
to the incident.

Must record, observe and determine
the following:
A. Determine the focal point of origin;

B. Location of fire debris and other physical evidence where they were
taken must be photographed, properly placed in sealed container with
corresponding tag/label duly initiated by the attending investigators and
must be brought to the BFP Arson Laboratory and or PNP/NBI Crime
Laboratory for examination.
C. Observation of exterior/interior of building and its surroundings.
D. Observation of spectators particularly those who are leaving the vicinity.
E. Method of entry found, doors, windows whether locked or unlocked.
F. Occupants manner of dress, attitudes and actuations.
G. After Fire Operation, the Fire/Arson Investigator must undertake the
following necessary Steps:
 carefully collect debris from various portions wherein the fire originated,
segregate and place in a sealed container with corresponding labels and
initials, and take pictures of the same;
 gather possible physical evidence which could have been used if there is
an indication of arson and have it properly documented;
 interview person/s who could give vital information relative to the fire and
invite possible witnesses including the owner/occupants of the
burned/affected structure or building.
43. Which of the following tale tell signs
indicates the material used by the
arsonist?
A. Type of building under fire
B. Color of smoke
C. Wind direction
D. Smoke marks
Answer
B

44. By observation, the fireman noticed
black smokes and reddish flame coming
out of the windows of the burning building.
This indicates that the burning material
would be -
A. Petroleum or rubber products
B. Magnesium products
C. Nitrogen products
D. Potassium products
Answer
A

A. Legal owner of the burned property and estimated
damages
B. Nature of business if commercial and its present
financial ventures to include insurance coverage
C. Legitimacy of Operation
D. Motives
E. Identity of the perpetrator/s
› Consult respective RFM/DFM/PFM/C/MFM for proper

guidance
› Inform owners/occupants to secure necessary clearance
before clearing the fire scene.
› Submit necessary reports within the prescriptive period.

45. Under set rules and guidelines, how
many copies of the Fire Investigation Report
(FIR) should be prepared by the fire
investigator?
A. Duplicated copy
B. Five (5) copies
C. Three (3) copies
D. As many copies as he can
Answer
B

THE FIRE INVESTIGATION REPORT (FIR)
A. Fire investigators assigned must sign the FIR in five (5)

copies to be submitted to the Fire Chief, Regional,
Provincial, District, City/Municipal Fire Marshals.
B. The findings in the FIR that will be submitted to the Fire
Chief, RFM, PFM’s/DFM’s and City/Municipal Fire Marshals
as the case maybe shall either be ACCIDENTAL or
INTENTIONAL. In both cases, persons responsible for the
fire incident either by neglect or intentional shall be
pinpointed by pieces of evidence and proceeded by
court action. UNDETERMINED causes of fire shall be
considered as pending investigation matters and should
not be reflected in FIR’s.
C. Fire investigating units are prohibited from furnishing
copies of their FIR to any party unless ordered by
competent courts. All requests for Fire Certificates by the
fire victims or other interested parties concerning a fire
case shall be directly addressed to the concerned Fire
Marshals who may issue a certificate as authorized.
 A. For NCR
 Authority Aggregate Damage


 1. Municipal Fire Marshal ---------- Not exceeding P 10 M
 2. City Fire Marshal ---------- Not exceeding P 20 M
 3. District Fire Marshal ---------- Not exceeding P 30 m
 4. Regional Fire Marshal ---------- Above P 30 M but not exceeding
 P 50 M
 5. Fire Chief - - - - - - - - - - Above P 50 M
 B. For Other Regions (other than NCR)
 Authority Aggregate Damage
 1. Municipal Fire Marshal ----------- Not exceeding P 10 M

 2. City Fire Marshal ----------- Not exceeding P 20 M
 3. Provincial Fire Marshal ----------- Not exceeding P 30 M
 4. Regional Fire Marshal ----------- Above P30 M but not
 exceeding P 50 M
 5. Fire Chief - - - - - - - - - - - P 50 M and above

46. What is referred to as the total
damage of the whole area burned?
A. Aggregate damage
B. Property damage
C. Actual damage
D. Moral damage
Answer
A

The Fire Chief through the
recommendation of the CIID shall
issue Fire Certificate to an aggregate
damage of P 50M and above or under
any circumstances that there are
casualties (killed) in a particular fire
incident.

BASIC FIRE FIGHTING
AND FIRE EXTINGUISMENT

47. Why is water prohibited to quench Class
D fires?
A. Burning metals are too hot
B. Water is not capable of extinguishing
fires
C. There is danger of electrocution
D. Class D fires react violently with water
Answer
D

48. Heat can be extinguished by means
of __ method.
A. Cooling
B. Smothering
C. Fuel removal
D. Chemical inhibition
Answer
A

1. (Removing heat) – a process using an extinguishing
agent whose primary characteristics is heat absorption.
2. (Removing oxygen) – a process of excluding the
oxygen from the fuel so that gases or vapors cannot ignite and
continue the combustion. (blanketing effect)
3. – the removal of the fuel.
4. – the sequence of events in
suppressing or extinguishing a fire by interrupting the chemical
reaction.
 1. Water
 2. Carbon Dioxide
 3. Dry Chemical
 4. Dry Powder
 5. AFFF (Aqueous Film Forming Foam)
 6. Halons
49. The use of a fire track is considered a
fire extinguisher.
A. True
B. False
C. Partially true
D. Partially false
Answer
B

50. Which of the following is not one
among the types of chemicals used in a
portable fire extinguisher.
A. Compressed gas
B. Halon
C. Dry Chemical
D. Dry Powder
Answer
A

 :
 1.
 2.
1. H2O (water)
 2. Dry Chemicals
 3. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
 4. AFFF (foam)
 5. Halons
 6. Dry Powder (metal/sand fire extinguishers)
 7. Halotron I
 8. FE-36 (Hydrofluorocarbon-236fa) HFC-236fa
 9. Water Mist
 1. – used for metal fires involving magnesium,
sodium, potassium/potassium alloys, uranium and powdered aluminum.
 2. (Cu metal) – used for fires involving lithium and
lithium alloys.
 3. – designed for use on lithium fires. Very effective on
fires involving high melting metals such as zirconium and titanium.
 4. – suppress fires with most metals alkyls,
pyrophoric liquids such as triethylaluminum.
 5. - can be used with most Class D fires.
 1. - the operational testing of an extinguisher
conducted yearly to determine its functions to operate properly.
 2. - an internal pressure check of an extinguisher or

shell to detect possible failure under pressure
Fire Fighting
tools
1st phase Fire Scene Investigation
Recording/ Protect/Preserve Fire

Documentation Information Gathering
Scene
Photography
Barricade Tape Elicitation
Sketching Cordon Rope Interview
Audio/Video Utilization Posting of Uniform

Personnel Interrogation
Note Taking Recognize Threats to

Evidence
Fire Suppression
Overhaul
Salvage
Use of Tools
Constant Walking through the

Scene
I. RECORDING
a. Photograph
1. Crowd
2. Vehicles
- make and color
- speedometer reading
- key position
- plate number
3. Color of Flames and Smoke
b. Audio, Video Utilization
c. Sketch Preparation
1. Rough Sketch
2. Progression Sketch
II. INFORMATION GATHERING
a. Noting Characteristics of the Fire:

1. Rapidity of the spread of flame.
2. Color of the Smoke and Flames.
3. Identifiable Odors
4. Area of origin
b. Taking Notes on the Following:
1. Unnatural state of the premises.

2. Obstacle on entry point.
3. Door and window locked.
4. Fire alarm or other fire protection
equipments disconnected/sabotage.
5. Artificial drafts by making opening.
6. Block entrance.
7. Contents of the building.
c. Interview and Elicitation
1. Witnesses - Discoverer of fire

2. Fire Victims
3. Responding Firefighter as to
area of origin.
4. Neighbors
- Outside the Involved Building
- Inside the Involved Building
III. Secure and Protect the
Scene
a. Determine the extent to
which the scene has been
protected.
b. Check the adequate scene

security.
c. Take extensive notes, do

not rely on memory.
III. Secure and Protect the
Scene
d. Keep a record of persons/
individual who enters &
leave.
e. Established frame of minutes

to take control of scene
regardless of circumstances
observed on arrival
f. Post Uniform Personnel,

provide cordon rope and or
barricade tape
Fire Origin Determination
Methods
And
Assessment
Detail Analysis of Observation Analysis Fire Pattern Technology

Information Analysis Utilization
Location of Area Non-Communicating Lines or areas of Carbon Tracing
of Origin Fires Demarcation Detector
How Fire Detected Present Condition& Surface Effects
Location of Victim
Unusual Event Prior Incendiary Devices Penetration of
Horizontal Surface
to Fire
Missing Items
Consumption of
Fire Cause Material in Melting
Unusual Appearance&
Last Person seen prior Location
to the fire
Trace Evidence
Discover
 Location of Area of Origin
 How Fire Detected
 Unusual Event Prior to Fire
 Fire Cause
 Last Person seen prior to the fire
 Non-Communicating Fires
 Present Condition & Location of Victim
 Incendiary Devices
 Missing Items
 Unusual Appearance & Location
 Trace Evidence Discover
 Lines or areas of Demarcation
 Surface Effects
 Penetration of Horizontal Surface
 Consumption of Material in Melting
 The borders defining the differences in
certain heat and smoke effects of the
fire upon various materials. They appear
between the affected and adjacent
unaffected or less affected areas.
The nature and material of the surface
that contains the fire pattern will have a
bearing on the shape and nature of the
pattern itself.
Sample:
 Alligatory pattern
 Deep of Charring
 Spalling
 Clean Burn
 Rate of Charring
 Smoke and Soot
From above or below, can be caused by
radiant heat, direct flame impingement, or
localized smoldering with or without the
effects of ventilation.
Sample:
 U&V Pattern
 Inverted U&V Pattern
 Arrow Pattern
 Pointer
 Typically when wood or other
combustible surfaces burn they lose
material and mass. The shapes and
quantities of remaining combustibles can
themselves produce lines of
demarcation and ultimately, fire patterns
to be analyzed by the investigator.
FIRE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
NOTES
During this process, the investigator should

be making detailed, written or tape-recorded
notes.
These notes should list all the pertinent

observations, including the type, location,
description, and measurements of the patterns;
the material on which the patterns are displayed;
and the investigator’s analysis of the direction
and intensity of the patterns.
PHOTOGRAPHY
The patterns should be photographed

several different ways to effectively show their
shape, size, relationship to other patterns, and
the location within the fire scene.
These variations should include changes in

the viewing angle of the camera when
documenting the pattern and different lighting
techniques to highlight the texture of the pattern.
VECTOR DIAGRAMS
The use of heat and flame vector diagrams

can be a very useful tool for analysis by the
investigator.
Vectoring is applied by constructing a

diagram of the scene.
The diagram should include walls,

doorways and doors, windows, and any pertinent
furnishings or contents.
VECTOR DIAGRAMS
Then, through the use of arrows, the
investigator notes his or her interpretations of the
direction of heat or flame spread.
The arrows can point in the direction of fire
travel from the heat source, or point back toward
the heat source, as long as the direction of the
vectors is consistent throughout the diagram.
The arrows can be labeled to show any one
of several variable factors, such as temperature,
duration of heating, heat flux, or intensity.
VECTOR DIAGRAMS
Complimentary vectors can be added

together to show actual heat movement
directions.
In that case, the investigator should clearly

identify which vectors represent actual fire
patterns and which vectors represent heat flow
derived from the investigator’s interpretations of
these patterns.
VECTOR DIAGRAMS
A vector diagram can give the investigator
an overall viewpoint to analyze.
The diagram can also be used to identify

any conflicting patterns that need to be
explained.
VECTOR DIAGRAMS
An important point to be made regarding
this discussion is the terminology HEAT
SOURCE and SOURCE OF HEAT.
These terms are not synonymous with the

origin of the fire.
Instead, these terms relate to any heat

source.
VECTOR DIAGRAMS
The heat source may or may not be
generated by the initial fuel.
An example of this would be a fire that

spreads into a garage and ignites the flammable
liquids stored there.
These flammable liquids then produce a

new heat source that produces fire patterns on
the garage’s surfaces.
DEPTH-OF-CHAR SURVEY GRID DIAGRAMS
The investigator should record in his or her
notes the results of any depth-of-char surveys
that are conducted.
This notation should be documented in the

notes as well as on a drawn diagram. For
analysis purposes, the investigator can construct
a depth-of-char grid diagram.
DEPTH-OF-CHAR SURVEY GRID DIAGRAMS
On this diagram the char measurements
are recorded on graph paper to a convenient
scale.
Once the depth-of-char measurements
have been recorded on the diagram, lines are
drawn connecting points of equal, or nearly
equal, char depths.
The resulting “isochars” may display
identifiable lines of demarcation and intensity
patterns.
We will be discussing a recommended
procedure for the examination of the fire scene.
Basically, this procedure consists of a

preliminary scene examination, development of a
preliminary fire-spread scenario, an in-depth
examination of the fire scene, a fire scene
reconstruction, development of a final fire-spread
scenario, and identification of the fire’s origin.
The discussion will address the

recommended techniques to follow when
examining a fire scene.
This technique serves to inform the
investigator but is not meant to limit the origin
determination to only this procedure.
All aspects of the fire event should be

considered by the investigator during the
investigation.
Such aspects as witness statements, the

investigator’s past experiences, and fire-fighting
procedures play important roles in the
determination of the fire origin.
Investigators will be making assessments of

fire spread throughout the examination of the
scene.
These assessments include recognizing

and documenting heat movement and intensity
patterns and analyzing the importance and
direction of each pattern found.
 Carbon Tracing Detector
Burn pattern with fire from above and below.
Burn pattern with fire from Saddle burn in a floor joist.
above and below.
Concrete Spalling
Development of U-shaped pattern. Truncated cone pattern.
Wood wall studs showing decreasing damage as distance from fire increases.
Typical V pattern showing wall and wood stud damage.

An LP-Gas cylinder that suffered a
BLEVE as a result of exposure to
an external fire.
Charring of wooden structural elements by heat

conduction through wall surface material.
A typical “pulled” bulb showing that the
heating was from the right side.
Detail Analysis of
Information From
Witnesses
Observation
Analysis
Fire Pattern
Analysis
Technology
Utilization
ORIGIN
DETERMINATION
3rd Phase Search, Recognize, Collect/Preserve Evidence
Search Method Record/Document Recognize/Identify Evidence Collection,

Evidence Prior to Evidence Packaging Transport
Collection Flagging
Strip Method
Photograph Evidence Observe Standard Collection
Prior to Collection Requirements
Double Strip Marking (Wearing of Gloves)
Sketch & measure

Zone Place Evidence to
Evidence Location
Recognition Suitable Container
Wheel Marking
Audio & video Tag, Seal & Mark
utilization Evidence
Spiral
Marking Prepare Evidence Chain of
Note Taking
Custody Form
•Packaging
•Transmittal Letter
2 witness requirements
ORGANIZATION
AND BASIC STAGES
IN SEARCH OPERATIONS
I. Preparation
A. Team Briefing
1. Materials requirement
of involved members
2. Discussed search
pattern use:
 strip
 double strip
 wheel
 spiral
 zone
I. Preparation
A. Team Briefing
3. Assignment / role of
individual team
members.
4. Set up command post
5. Organize communication
with services auxiliary.
6. Coordination with other
agencies.
II. Initiates Preliminary
Survey
a. Accomplished a
cautious walk through
the scene.
b. Acquire preliminary
photograph.
c. Delineate extent of the

search area.
Survey
d. Determine personnel
and equipment needs.
e. Identify and protect

transient physical
evidence.
f. Develop general theory

of the crime.
Survey
g. Record vehicles
identification number,
key position and
odometer reading.
h. Concentrate on most
transient evidence and
work to the least
transient form of
physical evidence.
Survey
i. Focus first on the easily
accessible areas in open
view and progress
eventually to possible
outer view locations, look
for a purposively hidden
items.
j. Consider whether the
evidence appears to have
been moved inadvertently.
Survey
k. Evaluate whether or not
the scene and evidence
appears unintentionally
contrived.
l. Two basic search
approaches:
1. "Cautious" search of visible
areas, taking steps to avoid
evidence loss or contamination.
2. After the "cautious“ search, a
vigorous search for hidden
concealed areas.
III. Depict Scene
Photographically
a. Begin photography as
soon as possible.
b. Document the
photographic effort with a
photographic logbook.
c. Insure that a progression

of overall, medium and
close-up view of the
scene is establish.
III. Depict Scene
Photographically
d. Use recognize scale device

for size determination when
applicable.
e. When scale device is used
first take photograph with
out the inclusion of the
device.
f. Photograph evidence in
place before its collection
and packaging.
III. Depict Scene
Photographically
g. Be observant on
photographs areas
adjacent to the crime
scene – points of entry,
exits, windows.
h. Photograph items,
places, etc to collaborate
the statement of
witnesses, victims, and
suspects.
III. Depict Scene
Photographically
i. Prepare photographic
sketch and photo
logbook.
j. Do not hesitate to
photograph something
which has no apparent
significance at that time,
it may later prove to be a
key element in the
investigation.
IV. Prepare Sketch of the
Scene
The diagram establishes
permanent record of items
condition and distance/ size
relationship - diagram
photographs.
IV. Prepare Sketch of the
Scene
a. Typical Materials on rough
sketch (not drawn to
scale)
 Case Identifier
 Location
 Date/Time
 Scale or Scale Disclaims
 Compass Orientation
 Measurements
 Key of Legends
 Sketch Preparer
IV. Prepare Sketch of the Scene
b. General Progression of
Sketches
 Layout basic perimeter
 Set forth fixed objects,
furniture, etc.
 Insert evidence as it is
recovered
 Record appropriate
measurements
 Set forth key/ Legends
compass orientation
 Others
IV. Prepare Sketch of the Scene
c. Number designation on
sketch should be
coordinated with same
number designation on
evidence log.
d. Insure that enough room

is allowed to include all
pertinent information and
measurement.
V. Collect and Preserve
Evidence
a. Collect evidence in
accordance with standard
practice.
b. Use specialized search

patterns (strip, double
strip, zone, wheel)
Evidence
c. Photograph all items

before collection and
enter notation in
photographic logbook.
d. Mark evidence location in

diagram sketch.
Evidence
e. Have at least 2 persons:
 See evidence in place
before collection;
 Observe it being collected;
 Tag zeal evidence;
 Place identifying marks on
evidence container and
document the proceeding
by photograph.
f. Do not handle evidence

excessively after recovery.
VI. Collect and Preserve
Evidence
g. If feasible, have one
person as an evidence
custodian to prepare
evidence chain of custody,
and evidence log.
h. Seal all evidence

containers at the crime
scene.
VI. Collect and Preserve
Evidence
i. The best container for
physical evidence such
as debris with possible
flammable accelerants is
clean can, or jar and
thus, evidence plastic
container can do.
Evidence
j. Do not forget entrance/

exit areas at the scene to
obtain appropriate and
substantial known
standards.
k. Do not over document

the physical evidence.
VI. Conduct Final Survey
a. This survey is a critical
review of all aspects of
the search.
b. Double check
documentation to detect
inadvertent errors.
c. Insure that photographs
are taken of scene
showing final condition
after completion of
search.
VI. Conduct Final Survey
d. Check to insure all
evidence is accounted
far before departing
scene.
e. Release of the fire scene
is accomplished only
after completion of the
final survey.
f. Secure affidavit that no
looting/ lost cause by
responding firefighters.
Fire Cause Determination
The systematic approach recommended is
that of the scientific method, which is used in
the physical sciences.
This method provides for the

organizational and analytical process so
desirable and necessary in a successful fire
investigation.
RELATING FIRE INVESTIGATION TO THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The scientific method is a principal

of inquiry that forms a basis for
legitimate scientific and engineering
processes, including fire incident
investigation.
The scientific method is applied

using the following six steps.
Recognize the need
(identify the problem)
Define the problem
Collect data
Analyze the data

(inductive reasoning)
Develop a hypothesis
Test the hypothesis

(deductive reasoning)
Select final hypothesis

(determine cause)
Recognize the need
a. Recognize the Need
Define the problem

First, one should
determine that a problem
Collect data exists. In this case a fire or
Analyze the data
explosion has occurred and
the cause should be
Develop a hypothesis determined and listed so that
future, similar incidents can be
Test the hypothesis
(deductive reasoning) prevented.
(determine cause)
b. Define the Problem
Recognize the need
(identify the problem) Having determined that a
problem exists, the
Define the problem
investigator or analyst should
Collect data define in what manner the
Analyze the data
problem can be solved.
In this case, a proper
origin and cause investigation
Test the hypothesis
(deductive reasoning) should be conducted.
(determine cause)
b. Define the Problem
Recognize the need
(identify the problem) This is done by an
examination of the scene and
Define the problem
by a combination of other
Collect data data collection methods, such
Analyze the data
as the review of previously
(inductive reasoning) conducted investigations of
the incident, the interviewing
of witnesses or other
Test the hypothesis
(deductive reasoning) knowledgeable persons, and
the results of scientific
(determine cause) testing.
Recognize the need
c. Collect Data
Define the problem

Facts about the fire
incident are now collected.
Collect data
This is done by observation,
Analyze the data
experiment, or other direct
data gathering means. This is
Develop a hypothesis called empirical data because
it is based on observation or
Test the hypothesis
(deductive reasoning) experience and is capable of
being verified.
(determine cause)
d. Analyze the Data
(Inductive Reasoning)
Recognize the need
All of the collected and
Define the problem
observed information is
analyzed by inductive
Collect data
reasoning.
Analyze the data
This is the process in
Develop a hypothesis which the total body of
empirical data collected is
Test the hypothesis
(deductive reasoning) carefully examined in the light
of the investigator’s knowledge,
(determine cause) training, and experience.
d. Analyze the Data
(Inductive Reasoning)
Recognize the need
Subjective or speculative
Define the problem information cannot be

included in the analysis, only
Collect data
facts that can be clearly
Analyze the data proven by observation or
experiment.
Test the hypothesis


(determine cause)
e. Develop a Hypothesis
Recognize the need

Based on the data
analysis, the investigator
Define the problem
should now produce a
hypothesis or group of
Collect data
hypotheses to explain the
Analyze the data origin and cause of the fire or
explosion incident.
This hypothesis should

Test the hypothesis
(deductive reasoning) be based solely on the
empirical data that the
(determine cause) investigator has collected.
f. Test the Hypothesis
(Deductive Reasoning)
Recognize the need
All other reasonable
Define the problem origins and causes should be
Collect data
eliminated.
Analyze the data

The investigator does
not have a truly provable
hypothesis unless it can stand
Test the hypothesis the test of careful and serious
challenge.
(determine cause)
Recognize the need
(identify the problem) This is done by the
principle of deductive
Define the problem
reasoning, in which the
Collect data investigator compares his or
her hypothesis to all known
Analyze the data
(inductive reasoning) facts.
Develop a hypothesis If the hypothesis cannot
withstand an examination by
Test the hypothesis
(deductive reasoning) deductive reasoning, it should
be discarded as not provable
(determine cause) and a new hypothesis tested.
Recognize the need
This may include the
Define the problem
collection of new data or the
reanalysis of existing data.
Collect data
Analyze the data

This process needs to be
(inductive reasoning) continued until all feasible
hypotheses have been tested.
Test the hypothesis Otherwise the fire cause

should be listed as

(determine cause)
“undetermined.”
Recognize the need
Presumption of Cause
Define the problem
Until data have been
Collect data
collected, no specific
Analyze the data hypothesis can be reasonably
formed or treated. All fires,
Develop a hypothesis however, should be
approached by the
Test the hypothesis
(deductive reasoning) investigator w/o presumption.
(determine cause)
Recognize the need
Define the problem
Collect data
Analyze the data

Test the hypothesis


(determine cause)
 COLOR OF SMOKE
 COLOR OF FLAME
 SMELL OF ODOR
 OTHER TALE TELL SIGNS

Combustibles Color of Smoke
 Hay/vegetable compounds, phosporous White

 Benzine White to Gray
 Nitro-cellulose, sulphur Yellow to brownish-yellow
 Nitric and Hydrochloric acid
 Gunpowder Yellow to brownish-yellow
 Chlorine gas Greenish-yellow
 Wood, paper, wood Gray to brown
 Iodine Violet
 Cooking oil Brown
 Naptha, Lacquer thinner Brownish black
 Turpentine Black to brown
 Acetone, Kerosene, Gasoline, Tar, Black
Lubricating oil, Rubber, Coal, Plastics Black

Flame Color Temperature
 Faint Red 975 degrees F - 525 degrees C
 Red – visible in daylight 1050 degrees F- 565 degrees C
 Blood red 1175 degrees F- 635 degrees C
 Dark Cherry red 1250 degrees F- 675 degrees C
 Medium cherry red 1365 degrees F- 740 degrees C
 Bright red 1555 degrees F- 845 degrees C
 Salmon red 1650 degrees F- 900 degrees C
 Orange 1725 degrees F- 940 degrees C
 Lemon 1825 degrees F- 995 degrees C
 Light yellow 1975 degrees F- 1080 degrees C
 White 2200 degrees F- 1205 degrees C
 Blue White 2550 degrees F- 1400 degrees C

Item/Substance Odor
 Nitro-cellulose Pungent, similar to camphor

 Phosphorous Wet match heads
 Carbo0n disulfide Rotten Cabbage
 Gunpowder Burned firecrackers
 Sulphur candles Chocking odor
 Ammonia Pungent
 Insect sprays Sweet or perfumed
 Cyanide or hydrochloric acid gas Peach pit

 3. Reaction of fire to water
 4. Streamers of trailers to cause fire spread
 5. Artificial conditions created to assist fire spread
 6. Absence of clothing, furniture, appliances, personal effects in
dwelling fires.
 7. Absence of stock, fixtures, machinery, display cases, records
 or raw materials in industrial or commercial properties.
 8. Obstacles to hinder fire fighting operations.
 9. Uneven burning or localized heavy charring.
 10. Intensity of heat generated by fire.
 11. Speed of fire spread.
 12. Tampering or damage to fire prevention facilities.
 13. Tampering or damaged to burglar alarm.

 1. Undergo salvage and overhaul operations;
 2. Note attitude and dress of owner/occupants;
 3. Note individuals who attended several fire incidents;
 4. Note any persons at the scene acting abnormally.
 How To Determine The Point of Origin:

 1. Locate the point of origin
 2. Begin in the area of heaviest damage.
 3. Determine whether the fire is originated at the building’s exterior.
 4. Examine the interior completely to locate the area/room of most severe damage.
 5. Check the ceiling to find the worst area of damage.
 6. Find the lowest point of burning within the area of origin.
 7. Look for the direction of the heat flow.
 Yellow 450 degrees F - 230 degrees C
 Brown to Purple 550 “ F - 290 “ C
 Blue 600 “ F - 320 “ C
 Faint Red 900 “ F - 480 “ C
 Dark Cherry 1100 “ F - 590 “ C
 Full Cherry 1400 “ F - 760 “ C
 Salmon 1600 “ F - 870 “ C
 Lemon 1800 “ F - 980 “ C
 White 2200 “ F - 1200 “ C
 Sparkling White 2400 “ F - 1320 “ C

 8. Check further for any signs indicating distance from the point of origin.
 9. Look for evidence of multiple fires.
 10. Keep in mind that flammable liquids and combustible materials leave heavy
charring and thus might not necessarily indicate the point of origin.
 11. Look for a definite fire pattern.
Indicators of Slow or Fast Burning Fires:

1. Overhead Damage
2. Fire Pattern
3. Crazing of Glass
4. Alligatoring
5. Line of Demarcation
6. Spalling
 Substance Form
 Aluminum Shavings
 Animal Matter Hides, Skin, Manure
 Bronze Shavings, filings
 Magnesium Shavings, filings
 Miscellaneous Sawdust, coal, flour
 Steel Shavings, filings
 Vegetable matter Hay, grain
 Vegetable oils All
 Zinc Shavings, filings

51. Under the DILG or PNP Law, which
government agency is responsible for the
prevention and suppression of all
destructive fires on buildings, houses, and
other structures, forest, land transportation
vehicles, aircraft, sea transportation and
equipment.
A. Bureau of Jail and Management
B. Local Government
C. Bureau of Fir Protection and Public Safety
D. Fire Department
Answer
C

52. What important point to be
established to determine the location or
place in the building the fire started?
A. The most damaged part of the
building
B. The exterior part of the building
C. The interior and the badly damaged
part of the building
D. The point of origin of the fire
Answer
D

53. It is the uncontrollable impulse of a
person to burn anything.
A. Reaction
B. Pyromania
C. Body spasm
D. Pyromaniac
Answer
B

54. In a fire situation, or burning building,
an important factor in determining the
use of incendiary fire and a good
indication of the intensity of the fire is _.
A. Color of smoke
B. The heat
C. Type of fuel
D. Color of flame
Answer
B

55. The activity of protecting the properties
from preventable damage other than the
fire. The steps are a) remove the material
outside the burning area, and b) protecting
or cover the materials by using tarpaulins
(cotton canvass treated with water
proofing) is called __.
A. Fire fighting
B. Extinguishment
C. Salvage
D. Overhauling
Answer
C

The Four Elements of Fire and Combustion Process

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

The Four Elements of Fire and Combustion Process

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

www.rkmfiles.

net/ 2012 lecture series

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

 Heat -- For a fire to start there must be a source of

 Oxygen -- A source of oxygen is needed.

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2010 rommel k manwong

UNINHIBITED CHAIN REACTION OF

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2010 rommel k manwong

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

Fire Tetrahedron – represent the

If the process is confined with pressure it is called

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2010 rommel k manwong

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2010 rommel k manwong

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2010 rommel k manwong

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

 Flame - The luminous body of a burning

 Heat - a form of energy generated by the

 Smoke - a visible product of incomplete

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2010 rommel k manwong

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2010 rommel k manwong

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

 Free Burning Phase - burning stage

 Smoldering Phase - burning stage

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

Solids melt to become liquids, and these

The basic rule is that at high enough

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

 Solid - molecules are closely packed

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2010 rommel k manwong

 Class B Fuels – materials that are in the form of flammable

 Class C Fuels – they are normally fire resistant materials such

 Class D Fuels – they are combustible metallic substances such

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2010 rommel k manwong

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2010 rommel k manwong

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2010 rommel k manwong

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2010 rommel k manwong

 Class I-B Liquids include those liquids having flash points

 Class I-C Liquids include those liquids having flash points

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2010 rommel k manwong

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2010 rommel k manwong

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2010 rommel k manwong

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2010 rommel k manwong

reaction must take place.

 A fuel must be present and mix with the

oxygen and produce heat energy.

 A fire is an exothermic reaction because it

www.rkmfiles.net/ 2012 lecture series

 Its heating intensity is measured by F,C, K, R