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A short review …

The scientific method is a way to solve


problems. Do you have any problems to
solve?

• Any big or any small ones?


How to write a hypothesis?

Question Hypothesis
• If I place a fake snake by the pool,
• How do I get rid of pigeons? then the pigeons will go away
because they are afraid of snakes.
• Does water help a plant to • If water is related to plant grow,
grow? then the more you water plants,
the bigger they will grow
because water increases
plant cell reproduction.
QUESTION

HYPOTHESIS RESEARCH EXPERIMENT

OBSRVATION COLLECT DATA

ANALYSIS CONCLUSION
In the table below, mention three differences between a prokaryotic cell and a eukaryotic cell and give at least two examples of these:

PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL


1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
1. 1.

2. 2.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS CELL RESPIRATION PRODUCER CONSUMER
PHOTOSYNTHESIS CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Type of organism in
which occurs

Type of cell in
which occurs

Organelle in which
occurs

Purpose of the
process
CHLOROPLAST MITOCONDRIA
BIOME WEATHER LOCATION PLANTS ANIMALS

DESERT

DECIDUOUS FOREST

GRASSLAND

TAIGA

TUNDRA

TROPICAL RAINFOREST
MOVEMENT OF ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEMS
CELLULAR RESPIRATION

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis-starts to ecological food webs!
Where does photosynthesis occur?
Photosynthesis
sunlight
Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
absorbed by chlorophyll

6CO2 + 6H2O + energy  C6H12O6 + 6O2

As can be seen from the equation for photosynthesis, the


wood, bark, and root came from water and carbon
dioxide.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Absorbing Light Energy to make chemical energy:
glucose!
• Pigments: Absorb different colors of white light (ROY G BIV)
• Main pigment: Chlorophyll a
• Accessory pigments: Chlorophyll b and Carotenoids
• These pigments absorb all colors (light) BUT green is reflected!
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• 2 Phases
• Light-dependent reaction
• Light-independent reaction

• Light-dependent: converts light energy into chemical


energy; produces ATP molecules to be used to fuel light-
independent reaction

• Light-independent: uses ATP produced to make simple


sugars.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
(LIGHT Reaction)
• Requires light
• Occurs in chloroplast (in thylakoids)
• Chlorophyll (thylakoid) traps energy from light
• Light Kicks electrons out of chlorophyll to an
electron transport chain
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Light-independent reaction (Dark Reaction)
• Does not require light
• Calvin Cycle
• Occurs in stroma of chloroplast
• Requires CO2
• Uses ATP as fuel to run
• Makes glucose sugar from CO2 and Hydrogen
Cellular respiration is the set
of the metabolic reactions
and processes that take
place in the cells of
organisms to convert
biochemical energy from
nutrients into adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), and then
release waste products.
What types of organisms undergo cellular respiration?
• While only autotrophs undergo photosynthesis both

Heterotrophs
AND

Autotrophs

Undergo cellular respiration.


How is digested food used by the body?
The body needs a constant supply of energy which comes from digested food.
Glucose from digested carbohydrate is an important substance that contains stored
chemical energy .

When glucose reacts with oxygen a lot of energy is released.

In the body’s cells, glucose and oxygen react to release


energy . Some of this is released as heat and the rest is used by the cells.

The release of energy from glucose is called…

respiration
What is respiration?
Respiration is the process that the body uses to release energy
from digested food (glucose):

glucose carbon energy


oxygen dioxide water

useful!
from the from the waste waste
digestive breathing product product
system system exhaled exhaled

This type of respiration is called aerobic respiration because energy is released with oxygen.
Nutrients + Oxygen Water + Energy (ATP) + Carbon Dioxide

Water + Carbon Dioxide + Energy (sunlight) Nutrients + Oxygen


Where does cell respiration occur?
Where does cell respiration occur?
Contain expand the surface area
proteins that makes the of the inner mitochondrial
mitochondria permeable. membrane. Contain transport
Impermeable proteins
and forms the cristae
Gel-like . Contains: –
hundreds of enzymes – special
mitochondrial ribosomes, tRNAs
and mRNAs – several copies of
the mitochondrial DNA genome
• From glucose and fatty acids
3 main processes:
1. Glycolysis (anaerobic)
The synthesis of ATP
2. Citric acid cycle (aerobic)
3. Terminal oxidation (aerobic)
•Takes place in the Cytoplasm
•Anaerobic (Doesn’t Use Oxygen)
•Requires input of 2 ATP
•Glucose split into two molecules of Pyruvate
Glycolisys
•Also produces 2 NADH and 4 ATP

•Requires Oxygen (Aerobic)


•Cyclical series of oxidation reactions that give off CO2 and produce one ATP per cycle
•Produces two ATP
Krebs Cycle •Takes place in matrix of mitochondria

•Located in the inner membrane of the mitochondria.


•Oxygen pulls the electrons from NADH and FADH2 down the electron transport chain to a lower energy
state
Electron •Process produces 34 ATP or 90% of the ATP in the body.
transport chain
C6H12O6 + 6O2 -->6 CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP
FOOD CHAINS
Food Chain: is a sequence of feeding relationships describing Which organism eats another
Sun is the source
The ____ of energy for food chains.
______________
eagle
Keep in mind that the arrow tip
always points towards the “eater”.
snake
eater
frog

grass-
hopper

food
grass
FOOD CHAINS LEVELS
eagle

cannot make
Since they _______ snake
their own food, they must
consume other
eat or “________”
organisms. frog

basis of all ________


terrestrial grass-
They form the _____
hopper
food chains.
They use the energy in sunlight
_______ to
make their own food through a grass
process called photosynthesis
_____________.
Top carnivore: any organism that is
not hunted by any other. It’s at the ___
__________
topits food chain.
of
eagle quaternary consumer
The ___
4th consumer in a food chain.
It eats tertiary
________________.
consumers
snake tertiary consumer
The 3rd
___ consumer in a food chain.
It eats secondary consumers
__________________.
frog secondary consumer
The 2nd
___ consumer in a food chain.
It eats primary
________________.
consumers
grass-
primary consumer
hopper 1st consumer in a food chain.
The ___
producers
It eats _________.
grass

FOOD CHAINS - COSUMERS


eagle Detritus: is the waste
___________
matter
and rotting remains of dead
_____________
organisms.
snake

Decomposers: are
frog eat
detritus organisms that ___
detritus and break it
_______
grass- down into ________.
hopper nutrients
decomposers
grass
Nutrients: are substances
needed for an organism’s
The cycle restarts. nutrients ______
growth and _____.
repair

FOOD CHAINS - DECOMPOSERS


top carnivore
killer whale
Marine food chains
shark start with microscopic
aquatic organisms called
phytoplankton that can
_____________
larger fish photosynthesis
perform _____________
to make their own food.

small fish

zooplankton

phytoplankton

aquatic ecosystems.
Food chains can occur in _______
FOOD CHAINS aquatic ecosystems.
Food chains can occur in _______
Bacteria in these vents form the basis of vent octopus
food chains in the same way as phytoplankton secondary
and plants do in other ecosystems. consumer

crab
Primary consumer

chemo-autotrophic
bacteria
producer
Hydrothermal Vent Organisms
FOOD WEBS

No ecosystem is only made up of


only one food chain.

Members of one food chain


usually also belong to another.

When you put all the


interconnecting
_____________ food chains in an
ecosystem together, you form a
food web
________.
Trophic Level: It is the _______
position an organism occupies in a food chain.
Each link
___ in the chain represents one trophic level.

eagle shark
On land, the first
trophic level begins
snake plants
with ______. larger fish

In the water, the


frog first trophic level small fish
begins with
grass- phytoplankton
_____________.
zooplankton
hopper

grass phytoplankton

TROPHIC LEVELS
As organisms eat one another,
energy
______ is transferred up the food
eagle 0.1 kcal chain.

- 0.9 kcal However, as energy is moved from


snake 1 kcal one trophic level to the next, only
10energy makes it to
___ % of the
- 9 kcal the next level.
frog 10 kcal
This 10 % is used to build biomass
_______
- 90 kcal bodily functions
as well as to fuel ______________.
grass-
100 kcal 90 of the
hopper This means that ___%
- 900 kcal energy is lost, mostly in the form
detritus and as heat
of _______ ____ from
grass 1000 kcal
metabolic processes.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Ecological Pyramids: These are diagrams that represent each
trophic level according to its energy
______ , biomass
_______ or population
_________.
Total energy
present in
1) Pyramid of Energy: tertiary
consumers.
This pyramid indicates
Total energy
the amount of energy
______ present in
that is present in each secondary
trophic level. consumers.

The amount of energy Total energy present in


primary consumers.
decreases as you
always _________
move up trophic levels.
Total energy present in producers.
2) Pyramid of Biomass:
Total biomass
present in
This pyramid indicates the tertiary
consumers.
amount of biomass
_______ that is
present in each trophic Total biomass
present in
level, in a given area. secondary
Biomass is the amount of consumers.
dry matter (without
_________ Total biomass present
water) within organisms. in primary consumers.
On land, the amount of
decreases as
biomass _________
Total biomass present in producers.
you move up trophic
levels.
2) Pyramid of Biomass:
Total biomass present in
In the water, the amount tertiary consumers.
of biomass increases
________ as
you move up trophic Total biomass present in
levels, creating an secondary consumers.
_______ pyramid.
inverted Total biomass present
This is only possible in primary consumers.
because the reproductive
Total biomass
rate of the organisms present in
increases as you go down
________ phytoplankton.

trophic levels.
3) Pyramid of Numbers:
Total
population
This pyramid indicates the of tertiary
consumers.
_________ of individuals
population
at each trophic level. Total population of
secondary
The typical pyramid of consumers.
decreases as you
numbers _________
move up trophic levels. Total population of
primary consumers.
This occurs when many
_____ and _________
small numerous
producers feed a smaller
______ Total population of producers.
number of consumers.
3) Pyramid of Numbers: Total
population
of tertiary
However, when the consumers.
producers are ____
large , and are
fewer in number than the
_____ Total population of
primary consumers, secondary
consumers.
the pyramid looks like this.
Total population of
primary consumers.

Total
population
of
producers.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/three-types-of-ecological-
Study control
LINE 1 LINE 2
1. In a food chain or food web, what does the arrows 1. In an ecological pyramid, what happens to
represent? energy, biomass and # of species as you move up?
2. For the given animals draw a food web using just Why?
the name.
• Grass is a producer 2. For the given animals draw a energy pyramid
using just the name.
• Snakes that eat mice
• Toads that eat beetles Grass - Snakes - Toads - Rabbits – Mice – Beetles –
Deer - Owls - Foxes – Cougars (pumas) - Eagles
• Rabbits, mice, beetles and deer all eat grass
• Owls eat mice and toads Label each trophic level as it corresponds
• Foxes eat rabbits and mice
• Cougars (pumas) eat deer
• Eagles eat rabbits, snakes, owls and mice
Label each organism as: Producer/consumer -
Heterotroph/autotroph - IF it is a consumer, label is
as: primary, secondary or tertiary consumer
Atmosphere
Biosphere
The biogeochemical cycle
involves the movement of
elements and compounds
among the land (lithosphere),
Hydrosphere organisms, air (atmosphere)
and the oceans (hydrosphere).
Lithosphere
Human activities can affect
these cycles
1. The biogeochemical cycle is the continuous flow of
elements and compounds between organisms and the
earth
2. The ocean plays a role in the biogeochemical cycle for
elements including carbon and nitrogen
3. As part of the carbon cycle, carbon dissolves into the
surface ocean from the atmosphere and is used for
photosynthesis
How do elements move through the biogeochemical cycle?

Elements travel
among air, land and sea
through
physical processes
Organisms use
elements as
nutrients
and put
nutrients back
into the
environment
The process of evaporation from plants is called transpiration.
(In other words, it’s like plants sweating.)
Hydrological Cycle
(water cycle)
1. Reservoir – oceans, air (as water vapor), groundwater,
lakes and glaciers; evaporation, wind and
precipitation (rain) move water from oceans
to land
2. Assimilation – plants absorb water from the ground,
animals drink water or eat other organisms
which are composed mostly of water
3. Release – plants transpire, animals breathe and expel
liquid wastes
Carbon Cycle
Carbon Cycle
(carbon is required for building organic compounds)
1. Reservoir – atmosphere (as CO2), fossil fuels (oil, coal),
durable organic materials (for example:
cellulose).
2. Assimilation – plants use CO2 in photosynthesis; animals
consume plants.
3. Release – plants and animals release CO2 through
respiration and decomposition; CO2 is
released as wood and fossil fuels are burned.
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
(Nitrogen is required for the manufacture of amino acids and nucleic acids- DNA)
1. Reservoir – atmosphere (as N2); soil (as NH4+ )or ammonium, NH3 or
ammonia, N02- or nitrite, N03- or nitrate
2. Assimilation – plants absorb nitrogen as either NH4+ or as N03-, animals obtain
nitrogen by eating plants and other animals. The stages in the
assimilation of nitrogen are as follows:
Nitrogen Fixation: N2 to NH4+ by nitrogen-fixing bacteria (prokaryotes in the
soil and root nodules), N2 to N03- by lightning and UV radiation.
Nitrification: NH4+ to N02- and N02- to N03- by various nitrifying bacteria.
3. Release – Denitrifying bacteria convert N03- back to N2 (denitrification);
detrivorous bacteria convert organic compounds back to NH4+
(ammonification); animals excrete NH4+ (or NH3) urea, or uric acid.
Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus Cycle
1. Reservoir – erosion transfers phosphorus to water and soil; sediments and rocks that
accumulate on ocean floors return to the surface as a result of uplifting by geological
processes
2. Assimilation – plants absorb inorganic PO43- (phosphate) from soils; animals obtain
organic phosphorus when they eat plants and other animals
3. Release – plants and animals release phosphorus when they decompose; animals
excrete phosphorus in their waste products
Sulfur Cycle
Sulfur (s) Cycle
 Component of protein
 Cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle.
 The source of Sulfur is the lithosphere (earth's crust)
 Sulfur (S) enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) during fossil fuel
combustion, volcanic eruptions, gas exchange at ocean surfaces, and decomposition.
 SO2 and water vapor makes H2SO4 ( a weak sulfuric acid), which is then carried to
Earth in rainfall.
 Sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots and incorporated into amino acids
such as cysteine. It then travels through the food chain and is eventually released
through decomposition.
Oxygen Cycle (Photosynthesis)
Sources of Oxygen:

 Photosynthesis and respiration


 Photo disassociation of H2O vapor
 CO2 and O2 circulates freely throughout the biosphere.
 Some CO2 combines with Ca to form carbonates.
 O2 combines with nitrogen compounds to form nitrates.
 O2 combines with iron compounds to form ferric oxides.
 O2 in the troposphere is reduced to O3 (ozone).
 Ground level O3 (ozone) is a pollutant which damages lungs.
Biomes

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