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TOPIC 1
What is Ergonomics?
Ergonomics (from the Greek word ergon meaning work, and nomoi meaning natural laws), is the
science of refining the design of products to optimize them for human use.
Primary data is data that you can not find in a book, a magazine or on the Internet, it is
collected by the researcher or designer themselves. This would be carried out with
questionnaires, conversations, interviews, emails or letters etc.
For anthropometric data there could be a specialized group of people that may not have been
studied.
Secondary research is known and the information required can be found in books, magazines
and on the Internet etc.
The %tile range is the proportion of a population with a dimension at or less than a given value.
A percentile is a measure used in statistics indicating the value above or below which a given
percentage of observations in a group of observations fall.
Percentiles are shown in anthropometry tables and they tell you whether the measurement given
in the tables relates to the 'average' person, or someone who is above or below average in a
certain dimension.
The most common %tile range used for design is the 5th, 50th and 95th %tile
Percentile Graph
First, notice that the graph is symmetrical – so that 50% of people are of average height or taller,
and 50% are of average height or smaller. The graph tails off to either end, because fewer people
are extremely tall or very short. To the left of the average, there is a point known as the 5th
percentile, because 5% of the people (or 1 person in 20) is shorter than this particular height. The
same distance to the right is a point known as the 95th percentile, where only 1 person in 20 is
taller than this height.
Which Percentile Would You Use for Designing a ……
door? Ans. The 95th %tile! If you designed the door for the 5th then the door would
be to low for tall people and too narrow for wide people.
kitchen cupboard? Ans. The 5th %tile! If you designed the cupboard for the 95th
then the cupboard would be to high for short people.
screwed cap? Ans. The 5th %tile! If you designed the cap for the 95th then smaller
people, usually weaker, would not be able to unscrew the top.
car seat? Ans. The 5th to the 95th %tile! The seat must be adjustable to suit all of
the %range or you would have millions of cars for every %tile range.
Think before you answer the exam question! If we were designing a doorway using the height,
shoulder width and hip width etc., of an average person, then half the people using the doorway
would be taller than the average, and half would be wider. Since the tallest people are not
necessarily the widest, more than half the users would have to bend down or turn sideways to get
through the doorway. Therefore, in this case we would need to design using dimensions of the
widest and tallest people to ensure that everyone could walk through normally. Wheel chair access.
Percentile Selection
What is Adjustability?
Adjustability accounts for body size and shape. For example, a
bicycle might have an adjustable seat to ensure a certain level
of performance regardless of the users leg length. The amount
of adjustability is usually determined by identifying the relevant
anthropometric measure and quantifying the range in that
measure exhibited by the target user population.
Remember – Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and its functions.
Methods of Collecting Psychological Factor Data
What are the four methods for collecting psychological data?
NOMINAL This scale only classifies objects into discrete categories, for example, food
groups. Nominal means “by name” and labels are used for the categories of
objects. Nominal scales are very weak, as they do not tell you anything more
than that one object is different from another.
ORDINAL As with nominal scales, the labels used in ordinal scales can be words,
symbols, letters or numerals. When numerals are used, they only indicate
sequence or order, for example, ranking someone by placing them in a
competition as “third” rather than by a score—they may have come third with
50% right or with 75%.
Which two psychological data scales are used for Qualitative and Quantitative data?
1. Ordinal, why? Ordinal (Qualitative) – taste, smell and texture, qualitative data are types of information
that have aspects that are unable to be measured, or are found to be approximations.
2. Interval, Interval (Quantitative) – sound, temperature and light are types of quantitative data
why? that can be quantified and verified, and is amenable to statistical manipulation.
Remember - Quantitative Data defines whereas Qualitative Data describes.
Human Information Processing System
What is the Human Processing System?
SENSORY PROCESS - The sensory processes would be the eyes, which would transmit
information to the brain.
CENTRAL PROCESSING - The brain is the central processing unit, which examines the information
and selects a response coded as a series of nerve impulses
MOTOR PROCESS - Nerve impulses from the brain are transmitted to the hand and muscles.
These are the motor processes, which reconvert the instructions into actions, that is the OUTPUT.
Human Information Processing System
Remember:
What does a breakdown in the Human Information Processing System mean? Systems?
It means there is a breakdown in processing the information required to carry out a task.
What effects and reasons can cause a breakdown in the human information processing system?
AGE – too young and maybe they have not learnt the skills (long term memory), too old maybe forget
what to do, or too weak to carry out the task.
SKILLS – do not have the necessary skills yet, may have forgotten the skills, skills needed are too
complex
HEALTH - when mental or physical health is comprised which may lead to not carrying out the
necessary tasks.
Effect of Environmental Factors
Because we are all different and we all respond to different environmental factors in different ways, for
example, how warm or cold the classroom can affect the performance of a teacher or student.
Environmental Factors Induce Different Levels of Alertness.
How do environmental factors affect alertness?
Temperature: If it is too warm you get sleepy and become less alert
If it too cold you become more alert.
Sound: If too loud sound can be distracting or even cause harm, high pitched or repetitive on/off
noises also become distracting.
Lighting: If the lighting is too dim it is hard to see things and you need to get close or strains the eyes,
natural light versus fluorescent lighting (can affect peoples’ eyes).
Air quality: excess dust or other pollutants could make it hard to breathe, or maybe cause someone
to sneeze or cough at the wrong time.
Smell: bad smells could distract and draw one’s attention away as would the nice smell of a hot apple
pie.
Perception: we all perceive things differently, we are all different and like different things.
‘One man’s trash is another man’s treasure’ some people like it hot other people like it cold. Striking the
happy medium makes good business sense as a happy worker will work harder.
Topic 1 – 1.1C PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Why do designers study physical characteristics? study
Designers study physical characteristics to optimize the user’s safety, health, comfort and performance.
Understanding complex ‘biomechanics’ and designing products to enable full functionality of body
parts can return independence and personal and social well- being to an individual.
What is Biomechanics?
Biomechanics is the research and analysis of the mechanics of living organisms.
What is fatigue?
Fatigue is the feeling of tiredness that has a gradual. it has physical and mental causes and can be alleviated by
periods of rest.
Recap
The importance of biomechanics to the design of different products considering muscle strength, age of user, user
interface (surface texture, handle size, etc.) and torque.
In a kitchen:
Viewing distances, space, reaching and pulling, lifting and turning strength are important;
1. Nominal Scale: This scale only classifies objects into discrete categories, for example, food
groups.
2. Ordinal Scale: As with nominal scales, the labels used in ordinal scales can be words,
symbols, letters or numerals.
3. Interval Scale: An interval scale is a more powerful scale, as the intervals or difference
between the points or units are of an equal size, for example, in a temperature scale.
4. Ratio Scale: The difference between a ratio scale and an interval scale is that the zero point
on an interval scale is some arbitrarily agreed value, whereas on a ratio scale it is a true zero.
REMEMBER! N.O.I.R
TOPIC 2 – RESOURCE MANAGEMENT & SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION
2.1 RESOURCES AND RESERVES
As non-renewable resources run out, designers need to develop innovative solutions to meet basic human needs
for energy, food and raw materials. The development of renewable and sustainable resources is one of the major
challenges of the 21st century for designers.
A renewable resource is a substance of economic value that can be replaced or replenished in the same or less
amount of time as it takes to draw the supply down. Some renewable resources have essentially an endless
supply, such as solar energy, wind energy and geothermal pressure, while other resources are considered
renewable even though some time or effort must go into their renewal, such as wood, oxygen, fish and leather.
This term is refers to a resource that is inexhaustible therefore can be replenished quickly.
What is a Non-Renewable Resource?
A non-renewable resource is a resource of economic value that cannot be readily replaced by natural means on a level equal to
its consumption.
The disposal of waste material by burying it, especially as a method of filling in and reclaiming excavated pits.
Design for dematerialization is a term used to describe a process whereof the mission is to reduce the
overall size, weight, and numbers of materials involved in a design and is a simple way to reduce the
total environmental impact.
What are the Product Recovery Strategies used for the end of Life / Disposal?
A circular economy is an alternative to a traditional linear economy (make, use, dispose) in which we
keep resources in use for as long as possible, extract the maximum value from them whilst in use, then
recover and regenerate products and materials at the end of each service life. Circular economy is
creating new opportunities for growth, a more circular economy will:
1. reduce waste
2. drive greater resource productivity
3. drive greater resource productivity
4. deliver a more competitive economy.
5. position to better address emerging resource security/scarcity issues in the future.
6. help reduce the environmental impacts of our production and consumption in abroad.
It is the total amount of greenhouse gases produced to directly and indirectly support human activities, usually
expressed in equivalent tons of carbon dioxide (CO2)
What is a battery?
A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power
electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its
positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode.
In general, it is the specific ability of an entity (person or organization) or resource, measured in quantity and level
of quality, over an extended period. It is basically the maximum amount that something can contain.
2.4 CLEAN TECHNOLOGY
Clean technology is found in a broad range of industries, including water, energy, manufacturing, advanced
materials and transportation. As our Earth’s resources are slowly depleted, demand for energy worldwide should be
on every designer’s mind when generating products, systems and services. The convergence of environmental,
technological, economic and social factors will produce more energy-efficient technologies that will be less reliant
on obsolete, polluting technologies.
The legislation for reducing pollution often focuses on the output and, therefore, end- of-pipe technologies. By
implementing ideas from the circular economy, pollution is negated and waste eliminated.
Drivers for cleaning up manufacturing:
1. What is Legislation?
Legislation is law which has been promulgated by a legislature or other governing body or the process of making
it. Before an item of legislation becomes law it may be known as a bill, and may be broadly referred to as
"legislation", while it remains under consideration to distinguish it from other business.
2. What Pressure can the Local Community and Media Create to Clean-up Manufacturing?
Clean manufacturing technology is governed by the "prevention is better than cure" dictum. The local community
creates awareness through rallies, protests which grabs the medias attention and is outcasted to wider public, as
these issues get more attention people tend to back each other up by not using the product/service which
eventually has a great impact on the companies revenues. This social and political pressure leads them to follow
the guidelines set up for that specific industry/ manufacturing unit.
What reasons are there for cleaning up manufacturing/industry?
Reasons for cleaning up manufacturing/industry include:
1. promoting positive impacts
2. ensuring neutral impact or minimizing negative impacts through conserving natural resources
3. reducing pollution and use of energy
4. reducing waste of energy and resources
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, which commits its Parties by setting internationally binding emission reduction targets. The Kyoto Protocol
was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. The detailed rules
for the implementation of the Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh, Morocco, in 2001, and are referred to
as the "Marrakesh Accords." Its first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012.
Making big and courageous changes to the design of a product or service complete overhaul of the manufacturing
process using radical clean technology systems
6. What are the advantages of Radical Design?
1. Bigger wins
The chance of getting a ‘bigger win’ is one of the main advantages of radical innovation.
2. Ownability
With an entirely innovative idea comes the chance to create a whole new brand and market - a market so
untapped that a single design could gain profit.
It is a method of developing a system through repeated cycles (iterative) and in smaller portions at a time
(incremental), to take advantage of what was learned during the development of earlier parts or versions of the
system.
A design philosophy that aims to eliminate waste from the production, use and disposal of a product. It
focuses on products which are made to be made again.
It is a key principle of the circular economy which is an economic model that is a closed loop system
where the materials or resources are in constant use. At the end of the product life cycle the material
waste (or obsolete product material) is recycled or recovered.
1- Consumer Pressure
2- Legislation
1. Why are Plastics Labelled?
Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI) created a classification system making it easier to sort and dispose of
different kinds of plastics. This coding system involves what is called a SPI code with a “chasing arrow symbol”
that must be molded or imprinted into the bottom of plastic products.
2. What is Green Legislation?
GL is laws and regulations that are based on conservation and sustainability principles, followed by designers and
manufacturers when creating green products.
3. What is a Reasonable Time Scale for Implementing Green Design?
A reasonable timescale, generally a short 2 – 5 years, is implemented. This allows for manufacturers to plan and
develop design objectives and is also more cost-effective
4. What is Meant by the ‘Environmental Impact of Production’?
Nearly 6 million pairs of tights and 3 million pairs of socks leave an impact on the environment. In order to minimize
the environmental impacts, technology has been used that helps reduce the unnecessary consumption of water,
energy, chemicals, colorants, and materials in production.
5. In Design What is Meant by ‘The Preventative Principle’?
The precautionary principle (PP) has been used in the evaluation of the effectiveness and/or cost-effectiveness of
interventions designed to prevent future harms in a range of activities, particularly in the area of the environment.
6. In Design What is Meant by ‘The Precautionary Principle?
It is a legal concept that was created by the EU to prevent hazards. Where there is uncertainty about serious or
irreversible damage to the environment, or injury to human health; adequate protective measures must be taken
without having to wait until the reality and seriousness of those risks become fully apparent. therefore the principle
is used to improve safety.
2.6 ECO-DESIGN
Consideration of the environmental impact of any product, service or system during its life cycle should
be instigated at the earliest stage of design and continue through to disposal. Designers should have a
firm understanding of their responsibility to reduce the ecological impact on the planet. Eco-design
concepts currently have a great influence on many aspects of design.
The smart phone is an innovative example of converging technologies that combines multiple
technologies into one space-saving device. The resultant reduction of materials, and energy used in
production and distribution has environmental benefits.
7. What is Eco-design?
Eco design is a design management process that takes into account the environmental impact of a product
during its whole lifecycle.
Stage 1: Goal and scope aims to define how big a part of product life cycle will be taken in assessment and to
what end will assessment be serving. The criteria serving to system comparison and specific times are described
in this step.
Stage 2: In this step, inventory analysis gives a description of material and energy flows within the product system
and especially its interaction with environment, consumed raw materials, and emissions to the environment. All
important processes and subsidiary energy and material flows are described later.
Stage 3: Details from inventory analysis serve for impact assessment. The indicator results of all impact categories
are detailed in this step; the importance of every impact category is assessed by normalisation and eventually also
by weighting.
Stage 4: Interpretation of a life cycle involves critical review, determination of data sensitivity, and result
presentation.
11. What Environmental considerations Should Companies Consider?
Companies should find ways to encourage employees to reduce energy consumption
They should take energy efficient measures like replacing conventional lighting with LED bulbs and
installing a smart thermostat
The amount of materials being used relative to the amount of products being made.
LCA is a methodology for evaluating more eco-efficient life-cycles of processes and products during their whole
life-cycle of a product. LCA examines environmental inputs and outputs related to a product or service life-cycle
from cradle to grave. LCA overall helps in reducing the environmental impact and costs and helps in identify the
whole environmental impact.
The assessment includes the entire life-cycle of a product, process, or system encompassing the extraction and
processing of raw materials; manufacturing, transportation and distribution; use, reuse, maintenance, recycling
and final disposal.
A designer is a person who makes designs for objects. The designer must be capable of receiving information,
researching on the topic/object/concept and with that, planning out and designing an object. -
14. What is the Role of the Manufacturer in Regards to Eco-Design?
The manufacturer is responsible for producing goods by bringing together the resources including materials, manpower,
tools, equipment or technology. The manufacturer also takes care of manufacturing costs of a product (cost of materials
and processing and assembly).
15. What is the role of the user?
The users of a product hold an important role. They not only use the product but they even help design the products as
their needs and wants are taken into count.
16. What are the major considerations of the United Nations Environmental Programme Manual on Eco-
design? The major considerations were:
The effect of the guidelines will vary depending product designed and the target market.
17. What is ‘Design for the environment” (DfE) software’?
This software uses compliance and sustainability data to design and develop more sustainable products faster. It
is a design approach to reduce the overall human health and environmental impact of product, process or
service where impacts are considered across its life cycle.
1. What are the advantages of converging technologies?
Technological convergence along with standardization enables transparent and
modular communication between different products over the network and the possibility of
delivering a broader set of them
2. What are the disadvantages of converging technologies?
If one technology fails could lead to the other contacted tech to fail as well
increased functionality of a device may lead to inefficient use
the converged tech may not work as well as on its own e.g. DVD player vs a DVD player in a game console
3.1 CONCEPTUAL MODELLING
Designers use conceptual modelling to assist their understanding by simulating the subject matter they represent.
Designers should consider systems, services and products in relation to what they should do, how they should
behave, what they look like and whether they will be understood by the users in the manner intended.
The starting point for solving a problem springs from an idea developed in the mind. A detailed exploration of the
idea is vital to take it from the intangible to the tangible, along with the ability to articulate the idea to others
Concept models, can be graphical, physical or virtual. The designer visualizes concepts, design thinking and
learning with:
• Graphical models such as flow charts, drawings and diagrams.
• Physical Models made out of clay, card, 3D printing, foam or wood (easily worked wood like Balsa)
• Virtual Models using CAD, simulation and other software
5. What are the Advantages of Conceptual Modelling?
6. What are the Disadvantages of Conceptual Modelling?
What are the Disadvantages of Conceptual Modelling
Make assumptions that which in reality do not work
o may lack details – too simplistic
o scale may distort perceptions or understandings
Graphic models such as flow charts may be difficult for people to understand.
Graphical models can take many forms, but their prime function is always the same—to simplify the data and
present it in such a way that understanding of what is being presented aids further development or discussion.
Designers utilize graphical modelling as a tool to explore creative solutions and refine ideas from the technically
impossible to the technically possible, widening the constraints of what is feasible.
7. What is a Graphical Model ?
Exploded isometric views of products are often supplied to customers to help them assemble a product.
11. What is Perspective Drawing?
It is used to represent the ways objects appear smaller as they move farther into the distance. Its adds depth
and dimension to flat images.
A diagram drawing is an assembly, showing symbolically, installation of equipment and is made in pictorial
form. Drawings give a big picture view of the completed project. Drawing lists all parts and even shows how to
fit together the product.
13. What is Sketching or Freehand Drawing?
A rapidly executed drawing that is not usually intended as a finished work. It serves the purpose of putting your
ideas to paper and for development of the idea(s).
14. What does Annotation Mean?
Annotation is a way of explanation or commenting to a text or a diagram. It helps to better understand the
content being annotated.
15. What are the Applications of Physical Models?
Designers use physical models to have a visual and physical representation of their design. Physical model of a
large objects can be scaled down or vice versa for ease of visualisation. The primary goal of physical modelling
is to test aspects of a product against user requirements. Physical modelling not only allows designers to explore
and test their ideas, but to also present them to others, it helps engage clients and target audience.
3.3 PHYSICAL MODELLING
Designers use physical models to visualize information about the context that the model represents. It is very
common for physical models of large objects to be scaled down and smaller objects scaled up for ease of
visualization. The primary goal of physical modelling is to test aspects of a product against user requirements.
Thorough testing at the design development stage ensures that an appropriate product is developed.
Physical modelling not only allows designers to explore and test their ideas, but to also present them to others.
Engaging clients, focus groups and experts to interact with physical models of products allows designers to gain
valuable feedback that enable them to improve the design and product-user interface.
They can be used effectively to investigate many phenomena such as fluid flows in hydraulic systems or within
wind tunnels, stress within structures and user interaction with a product.
E 5 What are the Advantages of Using Physical Models?
They allow you to try things out safely; for example, you could create a model of a house and then destroy it to
see how a fire or flood would affect the building materials. You could simulate an earthquake on a model of a
city, which would be impossible do for real. A common examples of physical models are crash test dummies.
The use of CAD to simulate the conditions in which a product will be used allows the designer to gain valuable
data at low cost. For example, simulating the flow of air across a car exterior negates the need for a car and wind
tunnel.