Chapter 4

AC Network Analysis
Part 1
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 Introduction
• We will introduce Energy-Storage Elements and
the analysis of circuits excited by Sinusoidal
Voltages and Currents (AC Sources).
• Time-Dependent signal sources and the concepts
of Average and Root Mean-Square (RMS) values
are discussed.
• We will analyze the circuit equations that arise
when time-dependent signal sources excite
circuits containing energy storage elements.

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 4.1 Energy Storage Circuit Elements
• Resistor as was discussed, is purely energy dissipative
element (energy-loss).
• Electric devices may also exhibit energy-storage
(Dynamic) properties, much in the same way a spring or
a flywheel can store mechanical energy.
• Two distinct mechanisms for energy storage exist in
electric circuits:
1. Capacitance.
2. Inductance.
• Both of which lead to the storage of energy in an
electromagnetic field.

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 4.1.1 The Ideal Capacitor
• A physical capacitor is a device that
can store energy in the form of a
charge separation when
appropriately polarized by an electric
field (i.e., a voltage).
• Capacitor configuration consists of
two parallel conducting plates of
cross-sectional area A, separated by
dielectric material such as air or
mica
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• A dielectric is a material that is not an electrical
conductor but contains a large number of Electric
Dipoles, which become polarized in the presence
of an Electric Field.
• The presence of an insulating material between
the conducting plates does not allow for the flow
of DC current.
• Thus, a capacitor acts as an open circuit in the
presence of DC currents .

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• If the voltage present at the capacitor
terminals changes as a function of time, so
will the charge that has accumulated at the
two capacitor plates.
• Since the degree of polarization is a function
of the applied electric field, which is time-
varying.

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 Continue…
• In a capacitor, the charge separation caused
by the polarization of the dielectric is
proportional to the external voltage (DC), that
is, to the applied electric field:

• Where C is the capacitance of the element, in

Coulomb/Volt or Farad (F)
• It is a measure of ability of the device to store
or accumulate charge.
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• If voltage applied to the capacitor plates
changes in time, so will the charge, hence:

• Although no current can flow through a

capacitor if the voltage across it is constant, a
time-varying voltage will cause charge to vary in
time.
• We know that, the change with time in the
stored charge is analogous to a current.
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• By definition,

• For capacitor,
• Then, differentiating the above equation, we
obtain the relationship between the current and
voltage of a capacitor

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• This Differential Equation is the defining circuit law
for a capacitor.
• By solving this differential equation (separable
Method) we obtain the voltage across a capacitor:

• The above equation indicates that the capacitor

voltage depends on the past current through the
capacitor, up until the present time, t.

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• Usually, we do not have precise information
regarding the flow of capacitor current for all
past time.
• Therefore, it is useful to define the initial
voltage V0 (Initial Condition) for the capacitor
according to the following, where t0 is an
arbitrary initial time:

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 Continue…
• Hence, the capacitor voltage is now given by the
expression

• The significance V0, is simply that at time t0 some

charge is stored in the capacitor, giving rise to a
voltage, vC(t0), according to the relationship Q = CV.
• Knowledge of this initial condition is sufficient to
account for the entire past history of the capacitor
current.

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 4.1.1.1 Series and Parallel Capacitors

• Capacitors connected in series and

parallel can be combined to yield a
single equivalent capacitance by the
following rule:
1. Capacitors in parallel add.
2. Capacitors in series combine
according to the same rules used
for resistors connected in parallel.

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EX 4.1: Calculating Capacitor Current from
Voltage
• If the capacitance C = 0.1 μF, calculate the current
through a capacitor if the terminal voltage is
given by  6

v(t )  5 1  et /10 V, t  0

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Solution: Using the definition of the current through the capacitor

Note how the current jumps to 0.5 A instantaneously as the voltage rises exponentially.
The ability of a capacitor’s current to change instantaneously is an important property of
capacitors.

Current, ic(t)/10 A

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• As the voltage approaches the constant value 5 V, the
capacitor reaches its maximum charge-storage capability
for that voltage (Q = CV) and no more current flows
through the capacitor.
• Hence, the total charge stored is Q = 0.5×10−6 C.
• This is a fairly small amount of charge, but it can produce
a substantial amount of current for a brief period of time.
• For example, the fully charged capacitor could provide
100 mA of current for a period of time equal to 5 µs:

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 EX 4.2: Calculating Capacitor Voltage from
Current and Initial Conditions
• Calculate the voltage across a capacitor from
knowledge of its current and initial state of
charge (see Figure 4.5).

Initial conditions and the

capacitance is as follow

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Solution: The voltage across the capacitor is defined as

Once the current stops, at t = 1 s, the capacitor voltage

cannot develop any further but remains now at the
maximum value it reached at t = 1s: vC(t = 1) = 12 V.

The final value of the capacitor voltage after the current

source has stopped charging the capacitor depends on two
factors: (1) the initial value of the capacitor voltage, and
(2) the history of the capacitor current.

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 4.1.1.2 Physical Capacitors
• physical capacitors are often made of tightly
rolled sheets of metal film, with a dielectric
(paper or Mylar) sandwiched in between.

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 4.1.1.3 Energy Storage in Capacitors
• As we know, the capacitor is an energy-
storage element.
• An expression for the energy stored in the
capacitor, WC(t), may be derived easily if we
recall that energy is the integral of power.
• But, the instantaneous power in a circuit
element is equal to the product of voltage
and current, hence:

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 Continue…

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 EX 4.3: Energy Stored in a Capacitor
• Calculate the energy stored in a capacitor, if
vC(t = 0) = 12 V;C = 10µF.
• Solution:

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4.1.2 The Ideal Inductor

• Inductor is an element that has

the ability to store energy in a
magnetic field.
• Inductors are typically made by
winding a coil of wire around a
core, which can be an insulator
or a ferromagnetic material, as
shown in Figure 4.8.

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 Continue…
• When current flows through the coil, a
magnetic field is established.
• In an ideal inductor, the resistance of the
wire is zero.
• Therefore, a constant current through the
inductor will flow freely without causing a
voltage drop.
• Hence, the ideal inductor acts as a short
circuit in the presence of DC currents.
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• If a time-varying voltage is established across the
inductor, a corresponding current will result,
according to the following relationship:

• Where L is called the inductance of the coil and is

measured in Henrys (H), where

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• The inductor current is found by integrating the
voltage across the inductor:

• If the current flowing through the inductor at time

t = t0 is known to be I0, with

• Then the inductor current can be found according

to the equation

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 4.1.2.1 Parallel and Series Inductors
• Series and parallel
combinations of inductors
behave like resistors, as
illustrated in Figure 4.9.
1. Inductors in series add.
2. Inductors in parallel combine
according to the same rules
used for resistors connected in
parallel.

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 EX 4.4: Calculating Inductor Voltage
from Current
• Calculate the voltage across
the inductor if the current
through it is given by

Assume that iL(t = 0) ≤ 0.

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Solution:

By definition

Hence, piecewise differentiating the expression

for the inductor current, we obtain:

Note how the inductor voltage has the ability

to change instantaneously

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 EX 4.5: Calculating Inductor Current
from Voltage
• Calculate the current through the inductor if the
terminal voltage and initial condition, I0 is given by

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Solution:
By definition

Note how the inductor voltage has the ability to change instantaneously

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4.1.2.2 Energy Storage in Inductors
• The magnetic energy stored in an ideal inductor may
be found from the instantaneous power

• Integrating the above equation we get

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 EX 4.6: Energy Storage in an Ignition
Coil
• Determine the energy stored in an automotive
ignition coil of inductance L = 10 mH;
and the initial condition current iL = I0 = 8 A.
• Solution:

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 4.2 Time-Dependent Signal Sources
• Figure 4.18 illustrates the convention that will be
employed to denote time-dependent signal
sources.

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• One of the most important classes of time-
dependent signals is that of periodic signals.
• A periodic signal x(t) is a signal that satisfies the
following equation:

• Where T is the period of x(t).

• Figure 4.19 illustrates a number of periodic
waveforms.
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 Figure 4.19 Periodic signal waveforms

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• These waveforms are provided in the form of
voltages by commercially available Signal (or
Waveform) Generators.
• Such instruments allow for selection of the
waveform peak amplitude, and of its period.
• Details are given in the Lab.

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• Sinusoidal waveforms is the most important class of
time-dependent signals.
• Figure above depicts the relevant parameters of a
sinusoidal waveform.
• A generalized sinusoid is defined as follows:

• Where A is the amplitude, ω the angular frequency,

and φ the phase.
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• Figure 4.20 summarizes the
definitions of A, ω, and φ for
the waveforms.

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 4.2.1 Average and RMS Values
• Suitable measurements for quantifying the
strength of a time-varying electrical signal
include:
1.Average (DC) value: Is the mean voltage or
current over a period of time.
2.Root-mean-square (rms) value: Is the
measure of fluctuations of the signal about its
average value (i.e. standard deviation).

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• We define the (average amplitude over T second)
time-averaged value of a signal x(t) as

• Where T is the period of integration.

• Figure below illustrates how this process does.

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 EX 4.7: Average Value of Sinusoidal
Waveform
• Compute the average value of the signal x(t)
= 10 cos(100t).
• Solution:
• The signal is periodic with period
T = 2π/ω = 2π/100.
• Thus we need to integrate over only one period to
compute the average value:

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• The result of Example 4.7 can be generalized to
state that

• If any sinusoidal voltage or current has zero

average value, is its average power equal to zero?
• Clearly, the answer must be no.
• There must be another way, then, of quantifying
the strength of an AC signal.

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• A useful measure of the voltage of an AC
waveform is the root-mean-square (rms), value
of the signal, x(t), defined as follows:

• Note that if x(t) is a voltage, the resulting xrms will

also have units of volts.

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 EX 4.8: rms Value of Sinusoidal
Waveform
• Compute the rms value of the sinusoidal current
i(t) = I cos(ωt).
• Solution: Comments: The rms
value of a sinusoidal
• Applying the definition signal is equal to
0.707 times the peak
value, independent
of its amplitude and
frequency.

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