Computer Network Fundamentals

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 Overview
• Introduction
• Building Network
• OSI Model
• TCP/IP Model or (Internet Architecture)
• Network Performance
What is a Network?

A network consists of 2 or more computers connected

together, and they can communicate and share
resources (e.g. information)
 Building a Network Problems

• How to build a scalable network that will support

different applications such as teleconferencing,
video on demand, E-commerce, Digital libraries,
distributed computing etc?
• What available technologies would serve as
underlying building blocks?
• What kind of software technologies would serve as
underlying building blocks?
• What kind of S/W architecture would you design to
integrate these building blocks into an effective
communication service?
 Building a Network
Network
• General Purpose Network
Communication between systems
(Nodes, Tab, Thinclients,printer, etc)
• Special Purpose networks
Telephone Networks, Cable TV Network
 Goal
• Exploring the requirements that different
Applications and different communities place on the
computer network

• Introducing the idea of network architecture

• Introducing some key elements in implementing

Network Software

• Define key metrics that will be used to evaluate the

performance of computer network
 Applications
• Most people know about the Internet (a computer
network) through applications
– World Wide Web( Reterival of a Web Page)
– Email
– Online Social Network
– Streaming Audio Video(Video on Demand)
– File Sharing
– Instant Messaging(Real Time Audio and Video)
–…
People:
Create Application, Manage Networks, Design , build
protocols and devices to make the internet.
 Requirements
People list the requirement for a Network
• Application Programmer
– List the services that his application needs
– delay bounded(deliver message in time)
– delivery of data without Error
• Network Designer
– Design a cost-effective network with utilize the resources
efficiently.
• Network Provider
– List the characteristics of a system that is easy to
manage(Faults can be easily isolated, New devices added)
 Scalable Connectivity
– Scale : Designed to support growth in an arbitrary
large size

– Link : Physical Medium

UnShielded Twisted Pair Cables (UTP)
Shielded Twisted Pair Cables (STP)
Coaxial Cable
Fiber- optic Cable

– Nodes : Systems/ Devices

 Scalable Connectivity
• Cloud represents the network
• Nodes inside the cloud (Switches) –
Implement the network
• Nodes outside the cloud (host) - Use the
network

A switched network
 Scalable Connectivity
• When a physical link occurs between a pair of nodes
then it is referred as point-to-point.
• When more than two nodes share a single
physical link then it is referred as Multiple access

(a) Point-to-point
(b) Multiple access
 Scalable Connectivity
• Data communication between the nodes is done by
forwarding the data from one link to another. The
systematic way of organizing these forwarding nodes form
a switched network.
Circuit switched – e.g. Telephone System
Packet switched – e.g. Computer Networks
• Packet Switched Network
In this network nodes send discrete blocks of data to
each other. These blocks can be called as packet or message.
Store and forward strategy
Each node receives a complete packets over the link,
stores in internal memory and then forwards to next node”.
Circuit Switched Network
It first establishes a circuit across the links and allows
source node to send stream of bits across this circuit to the
destination node
 Scalable Connectivity
– Router/gateway
– Host-to-host connectivity
– Address
– Routing
– Unicast/broadcast/multicast

Interconnection of networks
 Cost-Effective Resource Sharing
• Resource: links and nodes
• How do several host to
share a link?
– Multiplexing: Shared among
multiple users
– De-multiplexing
– Synchronous Time-division
Multiplexing

Multiplexing multiple logical flows • Time slots/data transmitted in

over a single physical link predetermined slot
• Divide time into equal sized
quanta
 Cost-Effective Resource Sharing
• During data communication, the hosts share a network
by multiplexing, which means that a system resource is
shared among multiple users.
• Multiplexing and de-multiplexing
The fundamental idea of packet switching is to
multiplex multiple flows of data over a single physical
link.
The messages are DE multiplexed at the destination side.
 Cost-Effective Resource Sharing
• FDM: Frequency Division
Multiplexing: Transmit each
flow at different frequency
• Statistical Multiplexing
– Data is transmitted based on
demand of each flow.
– FIFO, Round-Robin, Priorities
(Quality-of-Service (QoS))

A switch multiplexing packets from

multiple sources onto one shared
link
 Cost-Effective Resource Sharing
There are several different methods for multiplexing:
• Synchronous time-division multiplexing (STDM): In
STDM the time is divided into equal-sized quanta and,
in a round-robin fashion, gives each flow a chance send
its data over the physical link.
• Frequency division multiplexing (FDM): The idea of
FDM is to transmit each flow over the physical link at a
different frequency.
 Reliability

• Network should hide the errors

• Bits are lost
– Bit errors (1 to a 0, and vice versa)
– Burst errors – several consecutive errors
• Packets are lost (Congestion – No Place to store)
• Links and Node failures
• Messages are delayed
• Messages are delivered out-of-order
A network must satisfy the following important criteria:
• Performance: It depends on the factors such as
transit time, response time, and the number of
users, type of transmission medium, capabilities of
the hardware and the efficiency of the software.
• Reliability: Network reliability is measured by the
accuracy of delivery, the frequency of failure and the
time taken by a link to recover from failure.
• Security: It is concerned with the protection of data
from unauthorized access.
 Advantages of networking
• Connectivity and Communication
• Data Sharing
• Hardware Sharing
• Internet Access
• Internet Access Sharing
• Data Security and Management
• Performance Enhancement and Balancing
• Entertainment
ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet

employing the TCP/IP protocols:

Physical address,
Logical address,
Port address, and
Application-specific address.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 23

 Network Architecture
• Network Architecture
Networks do not remain fixed at single point
in time, but it must evolve to accommodate
changes based on the technologies on which they
are based and demands made by application
programmer.
• Network architecture guides the design and
implementation of network. Two commonly
used architecture are
OSI Architecture
Internet or TCP/IP architecture
OSI Model

Layer Architecture
Layer architecture simplifies the network design.
It is easy to debug network applications in a layered
architecture network.
The network management is easier due to the layered
architecture.
Network layers follow a set of rules, called protocol.
The protocol defines the format of the data being
exchanged, and the control and timing for the handshake
between layers.
A protocol is a set of rules that governs data
communication. It defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated
OSI Model

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

International standard organization (ISO) established a

committee in 1977 to develop an architecture for computer
communication.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is the
result of this effort.
In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference
model was approved as an international standard for
communications architecture.
Term “open” denotes the ability to connect any two
systems which conform to the reference model and
associated standards.
Interaction between layers in the OSI model

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 Layering provides two nice features.
• It decomposes the problem of building a
network into more manageable components.
Rather than implementing a monolithic piece
of software that does everything implement
several layers, each of which solves one part
of the problem.
• It provides more modular design. To add some
new service, it is enough to modify the
functionality at one layer, reusing the
functions provided at all the other layers.
 Description of Layers
• Network Support Layers
Layers 1,2,3 - Physical, Data link and Network are
the network support layers. They deal with the physical
aspects of moving data from one device to another such
as electrical specifications, physical addressing,
transport timing and reliability.
• Transport Layer
Layer4, transport layer, ensures end-to-end
reliable data transmission on a single link.
• User Support Layers
Layers 5,6,7 – Session, presentation and
application are the user support layers. They allow
interoperability among unrelated software systems
Interaction between layers in the OSI model

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Figure 2.5 An exchange using the OSI model

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Summary of OSI Layers

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 Physical layer
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and media - The physical
layer defines the characteristics of the interface between the
devices and the transmission medium.
• Representation of bits - To transmit the stream of bits, it must be
encoded to signals. The physical layer defines the type of encoding.
• Data Rate or Transmission rate - The number of bits sent each
second – is also defined by the physical layer.
• Synchronization of bits - The sender and receiver must be
synchronized at the bit level. Their clocks must be synchronized.
• Line Configuration - In a point-to-point configuration, two devices
are connected together through a dedicated link. In a multipoint
configuration, a link is shared between several devices.
• Physical Topology - The physical topology defines how devices are
connected to make a network. Devices can be connected using a
mesh, bus, star or ring topology.
• Transmission Mode - The physical layer also defines the direction
of transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex or full-
duplex.
 Data Link layer
• Framing - Divides the stream of bits received into data units
called frames.
• Physical addressing – If frames are to be distributed to
different systems on the n/w , data link layer adds a header
to the frame to define the sender and receiver.
• Flow control- If the rate at which the data are absorbed by
the receiver is less than the rate produced in the sender
,the Data link layer imposes a flow ctrl mechanism.
• Error control- Used for detecting and retransmitting
damaged or lost frames and to prevent duplication of
frames. This is achieved through a trailer added at the end
of the frame.
• Access control -Used to determine which device has
control over the link at any given time.
 Network Layer

• This layer is responsible for the delivery of

packets from source to destination
• Logical addressing - If a packet passes the n/w
boundary, we need another addressing system
for source and destination called logical
address.
• Routing – The devices which connects various
networks called routers are responsible for
delivering packets to final destination.
 Transport Layer
• Process to Process delivery.
• Port addressing - The header in this must therefore include
a address called port address. This layer gets the entire
message to the correct process on that computer.
• Segmentation and reassembly - The message is divided
into segments and each segment is assigned a sequence
number. These numbers are arranged correctly on the
arrival side by this layer.
• Connection control - This can either be connectionless or
connection-oriented. The connectionless treats each
segment as a individual packet and delivers to the
destination. The connection-oriented makes connection on
the destination side before the delivery. After the delivery
the termination will be terminated.
• Flow and error control - Similar to data link layer, but
process to process take place.
 Sessions Layer
• This layer establishes, manages and
terminates connections between applications.
• Dialog control - This session allows two
systems to enter into a dialog either in half
duplex or full duplex.
• Synchronization-This allows to add
checkpoints into a stream of data.
 Presentation Layer
• It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of
information exchanged between two systems.
• Translation – Different computers use different
encoding system, this layer is responsible for
interoperability between these different encoding
methods. It will change the message into some
common format.
• Encryption and decryption-It means that sender
transforms the original information to another
form and sends the resulting message over the
n/w. and vice versa.
• Compression and expansion-Compression
reduces the number of bits contained in the
information particularly in text, audio and video.
 Application Layer
• Enables the user, whether human or software
to access the network
• Provides user interfaces and support for
services such as electronic mail, remote file
access and transfer, shared database
management and other types of distributed
information services
• Application services
– X.400 (message handling service)
– X.500 (Directory services)
– FTAM (file transfer, access and management )
 Application Layer
• FTAM(file transfer,access,mgmt) - Allows user
to access files in a remote host.
• Mail services - Provides email forwarding and
storage.
• Directory services - Provides database sources
to access information about various sources
and objects.
OSI Model

OSI Reference Model: 7 Layers

TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP MODEL
TCP/IP Model

OSI & TCP/IP Models

TCP/IP and OSI model
Relationship of addresses to
layers
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of
interactive modules, each of which provides a
specific functionality. The term hierarchical
means that each upper-level protocols is
supported by one or more lower-level
protocols.
• Physical and Data Link Layer:
At the physical and data link layer, TCP/IP
does not define any specific protocol. It supports
all the standard protocols.
• Network Layer:
At the network layer, TCP/IP supports the
Internetworking protocol. It in turns uses four
supporting protocols: ARP, RARP , ICMP , IGMP.
Internetworking Protocol: It is a transmission
medium used by TCP/IP protocols. It is an
unreliable and connectionless protocol. IP
transports data in packets called datagrams,
each of which is transported separately.
Datagram can travel along different routes and
can arrive out of sequence or be duplicated.
• The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used
to associate a logical address with a physical
address.
• The Reverse Address Resolution
Protocol(RARP) allows a host to discover its
Internet address when it knows only its physical
address.
• The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP).
ICMP sends query and error reporting
messages.
• The Internet Group Message Protocol is used to
enable the simultaneous transmission
• Transport Layer: It is represented by using two
protocol TCP and UDP.
IP is a host to host protocol, meaning that it can
deliver a packet from one physical device to another.
UDP and TCP are transport layer protocols
responsible for delivery of a message from a process
to another process
• Application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the
combined session, presentation and application
layer in the OSI model.
 Internet Architecture

• Defined by IETF
• Three main features
– Does not imply strict layering. The application is free to
bypass the defined transport layers and to directly use IP or
other underlying networks
– An hour-glass shape – wide at the top, narrow in the middle
and wide at the bottom. IP serves as the focal point for the
architecture
 Performance
• Performance is measured by
Bandwidth(Throughput)
Latency(Delay)

• Bandwidth-
The bandwidth of a network is given by the number of bits
that can be transmitted over the network in a certain period of time.
For example, a network might have a bandwidth of 10 million
bits/second (Mbps), meaning that it is able to deliver 10 million bits
every second.
• On a 10-Mbps network, for example, it takes 0.1 microsecond(μs)
to transmit each bit
 Bandwidth

Bits transmitted at a particular bandwidth can be regarded as

having some width:
(a) bits transmitted at 1Mbps (each bit 1 μs wide);
(b) bits transmitted at 2Mbps (each bit 0.5 μs wide).
 Latency
• The duration of message to travel from one end
of a network to other. It is measured in terms of
time.
• For example, a network might have a latency of
24 milliseconds (ms) means, it takes a message
24ms to travel from one end to the other.
• While transferring the message, it is more
important to know how long it takes to send a
message from one end of a network to the other
and back. This is called as round-trip time (RTT) of
the network.
 Latency
• The latency can be measured with the following three
component.
• The speed of light propagation delay.
• The amount of time it takes to transmit a unit of data.
• Queuing delays inside the network
– Latency = Propagation + transmit + queue
– Propagation = distance/speed
– Transmit = size / bandwidth
where
Distance is the length of the wire over which the data will travel,
Speed Of Light is the effective speed of light over that wire,
Size is the size of the packet,
Bandwidth is the bandwidth at which the packet is transmitted

• One bit transmission => propagation is important

• Large bytes transmission => bandwidth is important
 Delay X Bandwidth
• We think the channel between a pair of processes as a hollow
pipe
• Latency (delay) corresponds to the length of the pipe , then
given the width of each bit, we can calculate how many bits fit
in the pipe.
• A channel with latency of 50 ms and bandwidth of 45 Mbps is
able to hold.
 50 x 10-3 seconds x 45 x 106 bits/second
 2.25 x 106 bits = 280 KB data able to hold.

Network as a pipe