Definitions

• HAZ (Heat Effected Zone)

• Heat input
• Residual stress

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 HAZ

Heat Affected Zone

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 HAZ

Heat Affected Zone

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 HAZ

The size of HAZ due to:

• The heatinput
• Thickness of the base material
• Heat conductivity of the base material

Isotermer

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 Heat input

Calculate according to Q = U*I *  kJ/mm

v*1000
U= Arc voltage (volt)
I = Welding current (Ampere)
v = Welding speed (mm/min)
= Coefficient of welding process
MMA =0,8
MIG/MAG = 0,8
SAW = 1,0
TIG = 0,6 According to EN 1011-1 1998

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 Residual stress

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 Test Methods
Tensile test
• Yield strength
• Ultimate tensile strength
• Fracture elongation
• Cross-sectional area reduction at fracture
Impact test
• Toughness
• Transition temperature
Bend test
• Mainly reveals the presence of defects
• Give some indication of the ductility

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 Material testing

Destructive Non destructive

testing testing

Tensile test X-ray

Impact test Hardness Ultrasonic testing
Bending test testing Magnetic powder testing
Break testing Penetration testing
Fatigue test Eddy current testing

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 Samples

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 Tensile test

Gives information about:

• Yield strength
• Ultimate tensile strength
• Fracture elongation
• Cross-sectional area reduction at fracture
• Coefficient of elasticity

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 Samples for tensile test

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 Tensile testing

Strain meter
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 Defining of the yield strength

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 Ultimate tensile strength

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 Coefficient of elasticity

Hook´s law:
Yield point
=E * 

Coefficient of elasticity

=Tension (MPa)
E=Coefficient of elasticity (MPa)
= Strain (%)

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 Coefficient of elasticity

The Coefficient of elasticity decides the size of the elasticity

A= Large Coefficient of elasticity

B= Small Coefficient of elasticity

Steel=210 000 N/mm2

Al=72 000 N/mm2

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 Extension

L1-L0 x 100 (%) Fracture elongation

A=
L0

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 Contraction
“Waist-measurement”

Z = S0-Su x 100 (%)

S0

Cross-sectional area reduction at fracture

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 Impact testing

Measure a materials capability to resist impact

Charpy

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 Impact testing
The impact test is not an engineering design method. If 40J has been achieved at -40 C
for a certain material, it does not mean that the material can be safely used at -40 C; it
only means that the material has better toughness than another material giving 40J at -20 C

V-notch

U-notch

Keyhole-notch

10 x 10x 55 mm

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 Impact testing according to
Charpy
Initial position

After

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 Brittle transition temp

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 Brittle transition temp

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 Bend test

”root-bend”
”face-bend”
”side-bend”

• Mainly reveals the presence of defects

• Give some indication of the ductility

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 Hardness testing

A materials capability to withstand impression

from a harder object.

•Brinell
•Rockwell
•Vickers

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 Hardness according to Brinell

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 Hardness according to Rockwell

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 Hardness according to Vickers

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 Hardness according to Vickers

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 Procedure testing
You weld in the exact joint, with the consumables, weld data
and heat treatment and then you test it according to a accepted
standard. E.g ASME Section IX, EN-288-3 (steel),etc.

Remember !!

The user is always responsible to follow the demands

from the end user, standards and authorities!!

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 Weldability

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 Instead you should say:

The material is suitable for welding.

Or..
The chemical composition makes the material
suitable for welding.

.. Not suitable for welding

..Less suitable for welding

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 The essential to prevent when welding

• Formation of small and big cracks

• Formation of susceptible (brittle) microstructure

• Avoid brittle fracture

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 To select suitable welding consumables you
should at least know….
• What kind of base material
• Designation or chemical composition

• Design criteria.
• Max allowed stress, max/min allowed temperature

• Required approvals

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 Everything in books, brochure and
other material shall be
seen as recommendations.
Recommended consumables gives
a weld that fulfil normal demands
under condition that the work is
done well and professional.

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 Carbon equivalent

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 Welding = Thermal shock treatment of the material

If the material contains enough

alloying elements and the
cooling rate is fast enough you
will get brittle microstructure
in HAZ
Cooling rate
Brittle microstructure

Alloying elements

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 t800-500
t800-500 = The time it takes to
drop from 800C to 500 C

t800-500 are influenced by:

- Heat input
- Preheat and interpass temp.
- Material thickness
- Thermal conductivity

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 Need to preheat?

Preheat will be needed

if the hardness in HAZ exceeds
a certain value.
Usually approx 350 HV

This can be predicted by calculation

of the Carbon equivalent

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 Calculation of carbon equivalent
according to EN 1011-2.
Method A Method B
• For steel groups 1-4 according to
• For Unalloyed, Fine grained and low
ISO/TR 15608.
alloyed steel.
– C 0,05-0,32 %
– C 0,05-0,25 % – Si max 0,8 %
– Si max 0,8 % – Mn 0,5-1,9 %
– Cr max 1,5 %
– Mn max 1,7 %
– Cu max 0,7 %
– Cr max 1,0 % – Mo max 0,75 %
– Cu max 1,0 % – Nb max 0,06 %
– Ni max 2,5 % – Ni max 2,5 %
– Mo max 0,75 % – Ti max 0,12 %
– V max 0,20 % – V max 0,18 %
– B max 0,005 %
• For CE-values 0,30-0,70 %
• For CET=0,2-0,5 %
• Based on experiment on C-Mn
• Based on experiment on low alloyed
steels.
high tensile steel.

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 Calculation of carbon equivalent
according to EN 1011-2.

Method A

Cu%+Ni%
CE = C%+Mn% + Cr%+Mo%+V +
6 5 15

Method B

CET=C%+ Mn%+Mo% + Cr%+Cu% + Ni%

10 20 40

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 Heat treatment before, during
and after welding

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 Preheating

Increases the
cooling time

The content of
Lower the risk for
hydrogen in the
brittle microstructure
material decreases.
(martensite).

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 Preheat
Four thing that decides if, and what temperature
you shall use.

1. Chemical comp of the base material Ec.

2. Thickness of the base material.
3. The hydrogen content in the consumables
4. Heat input.

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 Pre-Heat Temperatures According to Carbon
Equivalent value.

• CE up to 0.45% : Pre-heat Optional

•CE 0.45% to 0.60% : 90º - 205º C
•CE over 0.60% : 205º - 371º C
These are just recommendations, and real values can only be
determined by destructive tests.

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 Interpass temperature

Almost same as Pre-heat.

Depending on the welding process and base material thickness, you may
or may not need to apply heat to maintain interpass temperature...

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 Heat treatment after welding

PWHT =
Post Weld Heat
Treatment

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 Heat treatment after welding

Stress reliving

Aim:
- Achieve dimension stability
- Decrease the risk for stress corrosion
- Decrease the risk for brittle fracture
- Decrease the risk for hydrogen-induced cracking

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 Stress reliving

Slow heating and slow cooling

Heating time Cooling

Common values: 2 min/mm material thickness. Common values:
50-150°/h to ca 400° Min 2 h 25-100 °/h to
after that 200°C
100°/h to 550-600° then free cooling

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 ”Temper bead”

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 Unalloyed steel
Max. alloy- and impurity elements according to SS EN 10020:

Mn 1,65%
Si 0,50%
Al 0,10% If the steel
Ni 0,30% contains more
Cr 0,30% than this
Cu 0,40%
Mo 0,08% Then It’s
Nb 0,06%
V 0,10% LOW ALLOYD
W 0,10%
Pb 0,40%

More elements are specified

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 Effects of alloying the steel
• Higher carbon content gives:
– More perlite, i.e increased hardness
• But also:
– Increased ability to harden, i.e risk for forming of martensite
where the cooling is fast, e.g the Heat Effected Zone (HAZ)
• Furthermore:
– The martensite will be harder and more brittle with higher
content of carbon.

If you exclusively increase the content of carbon you

will get problem with the weldability of the steel.

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 Effects of alloying the steel
• To increase the mechanical strength without increase the carbon
content, the steel can be alloyed with e.g Mn.

But ...

•Mn increase the hardening as well.

t 800-500 need to be adjusted.

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 Why is Stainless Steel
consumption increasing ?
• More stringent requirement of enviroment, hygiene
and recycling.
• Increasing demand for longer life cycle and low
maintenance costs.
• More aggresive corrosive conditions in industrial
processes.
• Growing standard of living with greater demand on
product appearence and quality.

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 Stainless steel

What is Stainlees Steel ?

• A steel with at least 12 % chromium.

• Reacts with oxygen to chromium oxide and creates
and thin layer on the surface called passive layer.
• Chromium oxide has excellent adhesion, is dense
and difficult to dissolve.
• Passive layer protects the material from corriosion.

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 Range by applications
Stainless: Household equiment,general applications
Acid- resistant: Chemical and petrochemical industry.
High temperature: Energy industry

Range by alloying elements

Chromium steels: 13% Cr, 17% Cr
Chromium nickel steels: 302, 304
Chromium nickel molybdenum steels: 316

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 Grouped by microstructure
Microstructure is depending of chemical composition.

• Elements who stabilises the austenitic microstructure.

Ni, Mn, Cu,Co, N, C
• Elements who stabilises the ferritic microstructure.
Cr, Si, Mo, Nb, Ti

C-content is an important factor determing whether a

steel is ferritic or martensitic

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 Grouped by microstructure
• Ferritic stainless steel

• Martensitic stainless steel.

• Austenitic stainless steel.

• Ferritic-austenitic (Duplex) stainless steel

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 Typical composition range for
different types of stainless steel
Group Typical composition range Hardenability Ferromagnetic

C% Cr % Ni % Mo %

Ferritic < 0,25 12-30 0-5 0-3 Not hardenable Magnetic

Martensitic 0,1-0,3 11-17 0-3 0-2 Hardenable Magnetic

Austenitic < 0,2 16-28 6-34 0-6 Not hardenable Not magnetic

Ferritic-austenitic < 0,1 18-30 4-7 0-4 Not hardenable Magnetic

Martensitic-austenitic < 0,1 12-17 4-6 0-2 Hardenable Magnetic

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 Standards
• EN Standard: EN 10088
Steel number close or identical to werkstoff.nr
Steel name close or identical to DIN norm.
• ASTM, UNS, AISI, AWS, ASME ???
ASTM American Society for testing and materials
UNS Unified numbering system
AWS American Welding Society
AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

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 EN 10088
AISI 304
Steel number EN 10088 1.4301

1 43 01
Steel Group of stainless steel Alloying content

Steel name AISI 304

X5 CrNi 18-10

X 5 CrNi 18-10
High alloy steel 100 X % C Main alloying elements % Cr and % Ni

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 US Standards
• ASTM is the main standard witch is used i.e 304L
• UNS is a 5 digit system starts with a S (stainless)
i.e S30403
• AISI has the same name as ASTM.
• ASME is used for pressure systems and nuclear
applications. Refers to AWS and ASTM.
• AWS is the classification for welding materials.

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 Relations for austenitic stainless steels

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 Relations for ferritic stainless steels

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 Relations for martensitic stainless steels

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