Lecture 2: Load Analysis

 Types of Loads – Dead loads, live loads, impact loads,

wind loads, earthquake, hydraulic forces, etc.
 In additional to the above loads; temperature effects,
erection effects, secondary effects and deformation effects
should be considered.
 Computation of each type of load.

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 2.1 Permanent Loads
 Include: dead loads, superimposed dead loads and loads
due to filling material
 Dead loads include self weights of bridge elements.
– Concrete: 24kN/m3
– Steel: 78.5kN/m3
– Timber: 4-8 kN/m3
– Hollow bricks: 15kN/m3
– Solid bricks 22kN/m3
– Natural stones or rock: 20-28kN/m3
– Railways ballast: 19 kN/m3 2
 2.1 Permanent Loads
superimposed dead load include weight of all materials
forming loads on the structure that are not structural
elements , such as; wearing surface, railway tracks ballast,
guardrails, parapets etc

Loads due to filling materials.

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 2.2 Live Loads
 These are imposed loads due to vehicles or pedestrians.
 Primary live loads, considered as static loads due to the
weight of traffic or impact.
 Secondary live loads due to changes in speed or direction
of the vehicle traffic, e.g. braking forces, acceration forces,
centrifugal forces and collision loads.

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 2.3 Other Loads
2.3.1 Wind loads
 The wind pressure on a bridge depends on the
geographical location, the local topography, the height of
the bridge above ground, and the horizontal dimensions
and cross section of the bridge.
 Wind load Pt = qA1CD
where q is the dynamic pressure head (= 0.613v 2c in N/m2,
with vc in m/s)
A1 is the solid area (in m2) (see 5.3.3.1)
CD is the drag coefficient (see 5.3.3.2 to 5.3.3.6 5
 2.3 Other loads (continued)
2.3.2 Constraining loads
• Due to temperature changes (see 5.4)
• Shrinkage and Creep (see 5.5)
• Pier settlements (see 5.6)
• Friction forces in the bearings
2.3.3 Exceptional loads such as Earthquake loads (see 5.7)
2.3.4 Earth pressure (see 5.8)
2.3.5 Erection loads (see 5.9) etc.

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 Highway Bridge Live Loads(see 6.0)
HA loading: is the basic imposed load comprising of
• A uniformly distributed load
• A knife-edge load
• HA loading includes a 25% allowance for impact
• The intensity of which depends upon the loaded length
• Knife-edge load is positioned to have the most severe effect,
• Alternatively a single 100 kN load with  340mm or 300mm x
300 mm square contact area
Table: 2: Notional lanes for design purposes according to the carriageway
width
.

Carriage < 4.6 4.6-7.5 7.6-11.4 11.4-152 15.2-19.0

Width W(m)
No.of W/3 2 3 4 5
Notional
Lanes

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 HA Loading
The (BD 37/01) Design Manual for Roads and Bridges says that Type
HA loading is the normal design loading for Great Britain and
adequately covers the effects of all permitted normal vehicles other
than those used for abnormal indivisible loads. Normal vehicles are
governed by the Road Vehicles (Authorised Weight) Regulations
1998, referred to as the AW Vehicles and cover vehicles up to 44
tonne gross vehicle weight. Loads from these AW vehicles are
represented by a uniformly distributed load and a knife edge load.
The loading has been enhanced to cover:
i) impact load (caused when wheels 'bounce' i.e. when stricking
potholes).
ii) overloading
iii) Lateral bunching (more than one vehicle occupying the width of a
lane).
The magnitude of the uniformly distributed load is dependent on the
loaded length as determined from the influence line for the member
under consideration. For simply supported decks this usually relates
to the span of the deck. 8
Table 3: HA Loading
Loaded length L (m) < 30m 30m - 379m > 379m
Uniform Load 30 151 L-0.475 9
(kN/m/Lane)
Knife edge load (kN/Lane) 120

KEL
UDL

KEL

UDL

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Figure 1: HA Loading
 HA Loading
100 kN

340

Figure 2: Alternative to HA KEL loading

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 HB Loading
The (BD 37/0) Design Manual for Roads and Bridges in UK
says that Type HB loading requirements derive from the
nature of exceptional industrial loads (e.g. electrical
transformers, generators, pressure vessels, machine
presses, etc.) likely to use the roads in the area.
The vehicle load is represented by a four axled vehicle with
four wheels equally spaced on each axle. The load on each
axle is defined by a number of units which is dependant on
the class of road. Motorways and trunk roads require 45
units, Principal roads require 37.5 units and other public
roads require 30 units. Each unit is equivalent to 10kN.

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 HB Loading
HB loading is used for bridges which are on public highways where
they may be subjected to abnormal loads that are greater than
those arising from HA loading

- A 16 wheel vehicle is specified

- Load/wheel is 2.5 j kN, where j is the number of HB units
- The HB loading may range between 25 HB and 45 HB units
E.g. 25 units x 2.5 x 16 wheels = 1000 kN or 100 tons vehicle
45 units x 2.5 x 16 wheels = 1800 kN or 180 tons vehicle

The actual units to be used for a particular bridge are usually

specified by the authority concerned in the respective country
- HB loading also includes a 25% allowance for impact
- The length of the vehicle is varied for the severest effect by
dimensions shown in Figure 3.

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0.25
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.25 HB Loading

0.2 1.80 6, 11, 16, 21, 26 m 1.80 0.2

Figure 3: HB Vehicle
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 Combination of HA and HB Loading

Loaded length for intensity of HA UDL

25 m 25 m

Full HA No Load HB Vehicle No Load Full HA

Notional
Full HA

Lanes
Central reserve: No load for global analysis
1/3 HA
1/3 HA

Figure 4: A combination of HA and HB loading: HB within one notional lane

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 Combination of HA and HB Loading

Loaded length for intensity of HA UDL

25 m 25 m

1/3 HA 1/3 HA
No Load HB Vehicle No Load

Notional
Full HA Full HA

Lanes
Central reserve: No load for global analysis
1/3 HA
1/3 HA

Figure 5: A combination of HA and HB loading; HB occupying two notional lanes

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 Reduced loads for secondary roads
Simple, one lane bridges in rural areas may be designed using the
reduced vertical load as shown in Figure 6.
0.15

54.5 kN 13.5 kN
0.35

1.80 m
54.5 kN 13.5 kN
4.25m
2-Rear wheels + 2 - Front wheels = Total Load: 136 kN

Figure 6: Reduced vertical loads for secondary roads.

Fig 6 gives an overview of both HA and HB loading
Lane loads are interchangeable for severest effect

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 Pedestrian and Cycle Track Bridges

The imposed load on pedestrian and cycle track bridges is

uniformly distributed and depends upon the loaded lengths as
follows:

If L  30m then P = 5 kN/m2

If 30 < L < 379m then P = 25.2 (L) -0.475 kN/m2

If L > 379m then P = 1.5 kN/m2

In the case of footpaths on road bridges which are not protected

from highway traffic by any effective barrier, any four wheels of 25
units of HB loading acting alone in any unfavourable position
should be considered.

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 Transverse loads arise when a vehicle moves in a
curve.
The forces considered above all act vertically according to the law of
gravity. When a vehicle moves at a speed of not less than 80 km/hr
in a curve, a centrifugal force, Fc, acting in the transverse section of
the bridge and directed away from the curve center results. The
resultant force is defined by the expression:
m .v 2
Fc 
R
where m = mass of vehicle in Tons
v = speed of vehicle in m/s
R = radius of curve in m.
BS 5400 Part 2 gives a nominal centrifugal load defined by:
30000
Fc  kN
R  150
where R is the same as above
The force Fc can be applied as a single load or subdivided into 1/3Fc
and 2/3Fc then placed at 5.0m c/c longitudinally in combination with
a vertical load of 300kN.
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Accidental load due to skidding
On straight and curved bridges, a single point load in one single lane in
the direction of the highway shall be considered in which the nominal
load is 250 kN

Longitudinal load due to braking and traction

-The nominal load for HA shall be 8 kN/m of loaded length plus
200 kN but < 700 kN applied to an area of one notional lane x
loaded length.
- The nominal load for HB shall be 25% total nominal HB load
applied between the 8 wheels of two axles of the vehicle 1.8 m apart.

Loads due to Temperature Variations

The coefficient of thermal expansion shall be taken as 12 x 10-6 for
structural steel and concrete, but if limestone aggregates are used then
a value of 7 x 10-6 can be used. Expansion joints can be determined
using these coefficients.

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Accidental wheel loads: This loading applies to local effects and shall
not be taken into account in determining global effects on the deck.

40 kN 50 kN 30 kN

40 kN 50 kN 30 kN

Figure 7: Accidental wheel loads

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Pier impact (Technical Memorandum BE 1/77):
• 225 kN normal to carriageway with 75 kN parallel to
carriageway at guardrail fixing level or 750mm above
carriageway where there is no fixing,

• Plus 150 kN normal to carriageway with 150 kN parallel to

carriageway between 1.0m and 3.0m above carriageway level.

Collision loads on supports of bridges over highways (BS 5400:

Part 1):
• 150 kN normal to carriageway with 50 kN parallel to
carriageway at guardrail fixing level or 750 above carriageway
where there is no fixing,

• Plus 100 kN normal to carriageway with 100kN parallel to

carriageway between 1.0m and 3.0m above carriageway.

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 Load combinations
Three principal and two secondary combinations of loads are
specified in BS 5400: Part 2:1978:

Principal combinations
Combination 1: permanent + imposed loads

Combination 2: permanent + imposed + wind loads

Combination 3: permanent + imposed + constraining loads

Secondary Combinations
Combination 4: permanent + collision loads

Combination 5: permanent + friction loads at bearings

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 Partial Safety Factors to be Taken for Each
Load Combination
Table 4: Loads to be taken in each combination with appropriate L
Load Limit L to be considered in
Clause state combinations
number 1 2 3 4 5
5.1 Dead Steel ULS* 1.05 1,05 1.05 1,05 1.05
SLS 1.00 1,00 1.00 1,00 1.00
Concrete ULS* 1.1.15 1,15 1.15 1,15
SLS 1.00 1.00 1.00 1,00 1.00
5.2 Superimposed dead ULS* 1.1.75 1,75 1,75 1.75
SLS 1.20 1,20 1,20 1,20 1,20
5.1.2.2 & Reduced load factor ULS 1.00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
52.2.2 for dead and SLS “ “ “ “ “
superimposed dead
load where this has a
more severe total effect 23
5.2 Wind:
During erection ULS 1,10

SLS 1,00

With dead plus superimposed ULS 1,40

dead load only and for members SLS 1,00
primarily resisting wind loads
With dead plus superimposed ULS 1,10
dead plus other appropriate SLS 1,00
combination 2 loads
Relieving effect of Wind ULS 1,00

SLS 1,00

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5.3 Temperature Restraint due to UL 1,30
range S 1,00
SL
S
Frictional bearing UL 1,30
restraint S 1,00
SL
S
Effect of temperature UL 1,00
difference S 0,80
SL
S
5.6 Differential settlement UL To be assessed and
S agreed between the
SL engineer and
S appropriate authority
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5.8 Earth Retained fill and/or ULS 1,50 1,50 1,50 1,50 1,50
pressure live load surcharge
SLS 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00

Relieving effect ULS 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00

5.9 Erection: temporary loads ULS 1,15 1,15

6.2 Live loading:

HA alone ULS 1,50 1,25 1,25

SLS 1,20 1,10 1,00

HA with HB or HB ULS 1,30 1,00 1,10

alone
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6.5 Centrifugal load and associated primary ULS 1,50
live load SLS 1,00

6.6 Longitudinal HA and associated ULS 1,25

load: primary live load SLS 1,00

HB and associated ULS 1,10

primary live load SLS 1,00

6.7 Accidental skidding load and associated ULS 1,25

primary live load SLS 1,00

6.8 Vehicle collision load with bridge parapets ULS 1,25

and associated primary live load SLS 1,00

6.9 Vehicle collision load with bridge supports** ULS 1,25

SLS 1,00
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7 Foot/cycle track ULS 1,50 1,25 1,25 1,25
bridges: live load and
parapet load SLS 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00

8 Railway bridges: type RU ULS 1,40 1,20 1,20

and RL primary and
secondary live SLS 1,10 1,00 1,00

*L shall be increased to at least 1.10 and 1.20 for steel and concrete
respectively to compensate for inaccuracies when dead loads are not
accurately assessed
L may be reduced to 1.2 and 1.0 for the ULS and SLS respectively
subject to approval of the appropriate authority
** This is the only secondary live load to be considered for foot/cycle
track bridges

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 Design Internal Actions
Load Cases:
Case 1: Maximum mid span moment
Case 2:: Maximum end span moment
Case 3: Maximum over support moment
Case 4: Maximum shear force at piers
Case 5: Maximum shear force at abutments

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 Computation Of Live Loads - HA + KEL
Example:
A bridge has a carriageway width of 6.40m, and 15 m
span. Determine the live loading on the bridge per unit
area
Solution:
For 6.40m width of carriageway,
the number of notional lanes = 2

For a loaded length of 15 m,

HA UDL = 30 kN/m/lane
Therefore, the load is; 30/3.2 = 9.375kN/m2

The knife edge load KEL

KEL = 120 kN/lane
= 120 /3.2 = 37.5 kN/m (transversal line
30
load)
KEL in a single lane bridge

3.20m
120 kN

120 kN

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KEL in a 2-Lane bridge

3.20
120 kN

6.40m
3.20
120 kN

240 kN

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