The Respiratory System

Instructor: Nurdiana Samsulrizal & Dzulsuhaimi Daud

 Cells need a constant
supply of O2 delivered to
them to support their
energy-generating chemical
reactions.

This produce CO2 that must

be removed continuously to
maintain the internal pH.

The respiratory system contributes

to homeostasis by obtaining O2
from and eliminating CO2 to the
external environments.

It help regulate the pH of the

internal environment by adjusting
the rate of removal of acid-forming
CO2.
 Respiration encompasses two
separate but related processes;

1. external respiration

2. internal/cellular respiration

External respiration refers to gas exchange across the respiratory

membrane and internal respiration refers to gas exchange between
the blood and the cells (Merriam-Webster Online).

External respiration refers to the entire sequence of events in the

exchange of O2 and CO2 between the external environment and the
tissue cells (Sherwood, 2012).

Cellular respiration refers to the intracellular metabolic processes

carried out within the mitochondria, involving the use of O2 to derive
ATP from food and producing CO2 as a by-product (Sherwood, 2012).
 External Respiration, Internal
Respiration & Cellular Respiration.
Respiratory functions of the
respiratory system;

1. Provides O2 for metabolism in

the tissues.
2. Removes CO2 (the waste
product of metabolism).

Non-respiratory functions of the respiratory system;

1. Route for water loss & heat elimination – inspired (inhaled)

atmospheric air is humidified and warmed by the respiratory
airways.
2. Maintains acid-base balance.
3. Produces speech.
4. Facilitates sense of smell.
5. Enhances venous return.
6. Against inhaled foreign materials.
 Respiratory Mechanics

Air tend to move down a pressure gradient.

Air flows into and out of the lungs during the act of breathing by moving
down alternately reversing pressure gradients established between the
alveoli and the atmospheric by cyclic respiratory muscle activity.

There are 3 pressures important in ventilation;

1. Atmospheric (barometric) pressure

2. Intra-alveolar pressure

3. Intra-pleural pressure
Respiratory Mechanics
Respiratory Mechanics
Respiratory Mechanics
Respiratory Mechanics
 Boyle’s Law

Boyle’s Law stated that at any constant temperature, the pressure exerted
by a gas in a closed container (thoracic cavity) varies inversely with the
volume of the gas.
 Boyle’s Law

Boyle’s Law stated that at any constant temperature, the pressure exerted
by a gas in a closed container (thoracic cavity) varies inversely with the
volume of the gas.

When the pressure within container

(thoracic cavity) decreases, the volume of
the container (thoracic cavity) will be
increased → atmospheric air will move into
the container (thoracic cavity).

Vice-versa when the pressure within the

container (thoracic cavity) increases.
Boyle’s Law

Boyle’s Law and Inspiration?

Boyle’s Law and Expiration?

Boyle’s Law
Gas Exchange

The purpose of breathing is to provide a

continual supply of O2 for pick-up by the
blood and to constantly remove CO2
from the blood.

Blood acts as a transport system for O2

and CO2 between the lungs and the
tissues, with the tissue cells extracting
O2 from the blood and eliminating CO2
into the blood.

Gas exchange at both the pulmonary

capillary and the tissue capillary levels
involves simple passive diffusion of O2
and CO2 down partial pressure gradient
→ NO ACTIVE TRANSPORT
MECHANISMS exist for these gases.
Atmospheric air is a mixture of gases, typically N2 (79%), O2 (21%) and
other gases/pollutants → all together these gases exert a total
atmospheric pressure of 760 mm Hg or 101 kPa at sea level.

This total pressure is equal to the sum of the pressures that each gas in
the mixture partially contributes.

The pressure exerted by a particular gas is directly proportional to the

percentage of that gas in the total air mixture → PARTIAL PRESSURE.
Partial pressure, Pgas – the individual pressure exerted independently by
a particular gas within a mixture of gases.

PO2 = atmospheric pressure x the percentage of O2 in the atmosphere

= 760 mm Hg x 21/100

= 160 mm HG
Partial pressure gradients

A difference in partial pressure of

a gas between two regions that
promotes the movement of the
gas from the region of higher
partial pressure to the region of
lower partial pressure.

A gas always diffuses down its partial

pressure gradient.

Partial pressure gradient exist between;

1. The alveolar air and the pulmonary

capillary blood.

2. The systemic capillary blood and the

surrounding tissues.
O2 and CO2 exchange across pulmonary and systemic capillaries
caused by partial pressure gradients.
 Gas Transport

Gas Method of Transport in Blood Percentage

O2 Physically dissolved 1.5
Bound to hemoglobin 98.5
CO2 Physically dissolved 10
Bound to hemoglobin 30
As bicarbonate (HCO3-) 60
 O2 Transport

Physically dissolved O2

O2 is poorly soluble in body fluids → little O2 physically dissolves in

blood.

The amount of dissolved O2 is proportionally to the PO2 of the blood

→ the higher the PO2, the more O2 dissolved.

Normal arterial PO2 of 100 mm Hg, only 3 ml of O2 dissolve in 1 liter of

blood → 15 ml of O2 dissolve per minute in the normal pulmonary
blood flow of 5 liters/min (the resting cardiac output).

Under resting conditions, the cells consume 250 ml of O2 per minute

and consumption may increase up to 25-fold during exercise →
additional mechanism to transport O2; hemoglobin.
 O2 Transport

Bound to hemoglobin

Hemoglobin form a loose and reversible combination with O2;

Hb (deoxyhemoglobin) + O2 ↔ HbO2 (oxyhemoglobin)

What determines whether O2 and Hb combined or dissociated?

Why does Hb combine with O2 in the lung and release O2 at the

tissue?

How can a variable amount of O2 be released at the tissues,

depending on the level of tissue activity?

Why O2 bound to Hb not contribute to PO2?

 O2 Transport

Bound to hemoglobin

The percent hemoglobin saturation (% Hb) – a measure of the extent

to which the Hb present is combined with O2.

The important factor determining the % Hb saturation is the PO2 of the

blood → in turn is related to the concentration of O2 physically
dissolved in the blood.

Law of Mass Action – if the concentration of one substance involved in

reversible reaction is increased, the reaction is driven toward the opposite
side.
1. Pulmonary capillaries – PO2 increase, increased
Hb + O2 ↔ HbO2 % Hb saturation.
2. Systemic capillaries – PO2 decrease, decreased
% Hb saturation.
 O2 Transport

Bound to hemoglobin
 O2 Transport

Factors regulate O2-Hb curve

 CO2 Transport

The amount of CO2 physically dissolved in

the blood depend on PCO2. CO2 is more
soluble than O2 in plasma water.

Reduced Hb has a
greater affinity for CO2

CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H + HCO3-

CO2 + Hb → HbCO2 (carbamino Hb) Erythrocyte enzyme, carbonic anhydrase

CO2 binds with the globin portion of Hb.

 Respiratory Pigment

Hemoglobins (Hb) – are found in mammals, some species of plants,

fungi, protists and bacteria. Related proteins called protoglobins are
found in some archaea.

Hemocyanins (Hc) – extracellular proteins and found in arthropods,

annelids and mollusks. The blood of these animals appear bluish
(colourless when deoxygenated) as a result of the copper atoms.

Hemerythrin – found intracellularly in certain group of marine

brachiopods and some worm groups.

Chlorocruorin and erthyrocruorin – are pigments found in some

annelids. Both are iron/heme proteins like hemoglobins but much
larger and found extracellularly.
 Respiratory Pigment
Hemoglobin

The concentration of Hb in an animal is not fixed;

1. Seasonal changes – Concentrations of Hb increase during cold.

2. Locomotory activity – Triggers hormonal stimulation of the bone

marrow to produce more RBC.

3. High altitude – Exposure to low ambient O2 trigger the production

of RBC.

4. Stress and disease – For example anemia, can be triggered by

stress hormones, immune cytokines and many diseases.
 Respiratory Pigment
Myoglobin (Mb)

A monomer (single protein unit) with one heme/iron that serves to

store O2 in muscle – skeletal fibers and cardiac.

Myoglobins contributing to these muscle’s red colour.

Myoglobin provide an alternative pathway for O2 diffusion, with Mb

picking up O2 near the membrane (where PO2 is higher) and diffusing
to the mitochondria where the O2 would be released (where PO2 is
lower).
 Respiratory Pigment
Neuroglobin & cytoglobin

Neuroglobin is found in neurons, retina and some endocrine cells.

Neuroglobin;
1. enhance neural O2 supply in a way similar to myoglobin.
2. protect brains from stroke damage
3. prevent neuronal cell death following injury

Cytoglobin has been found in fibroblast – its function is uncertain but

there is evidence that it can protect the cell from free-radical damage.
Lung Dynamics & Volumes

Spirometer – to measure lung

volumes.

Spirometer consists of an air-filled

inverted drum floating in a water-
filled chamber.

The drum rises and falls in the

water chamber as the subject
breathes air.

This rise and fall can be recorded

as a spirogram, which is calibrated
to volume changes.
Lung Dynamics & Volumes
Lung Dynamics & Volumes
 Lung Dynamics & Volumes

Total lung capacity or TLC – the maximum amount of air that the
lungs can hold.

Mathematically, TLC = VC (vital capacity) + RV (residual volume)

On average, in healthy young human is about 5.7 L and 42 L in

young horses.

A species, anatomic build, age, distensibility of the lungs, and

presence or absence of respiratory disease all affect TLC.
 Lung Dynamics & Volumes

Tidal volume or TV – the volume of air entering or leaving the

lungs during a single breath.

The resting tidal volume or rTV is a common measurement – in

most mammals, rTV is about 10 to 14% of TLC.

Humans inspires about 0.4 to 0.5 L of air and the same quantity is
expired.

A horse inspires about 4 to 6 L of air and the same quantity is

expired.
 Lung Dynamics & Volumes

Functional residue reserve or FRC – the volume of air in the

lungs at the end of a normal passive expiration.

Normally, during quiet breathing, the lungs are not close to maximal
inflation, nor are they deflated to their minimum volume.

The lungs normally remain moderately inflated throughout the

respiratory cycle.

At the end of a normal quiet expiration, the lungs still contain about
2.2 L of air in human and 24 L in horse.
 Lung Dynamics & Volumes

Residual volume or RV – the minimum volume of air remaining in

the lungs even after a maximal expiration.

Lung volume can be decreased to 1.2 L in human and 12 L in horse

but the lungs can never be completely deflated because the small
airways collapsed during forced expirations at low lung volumes,
blocking further outflow of air.

The inability to empty the lungs completely is a drawback because

fresh inspired air is mixed with the large volume of old air remaining
in the lung → thus reducing the O2 partial pressure → to prevent
wide fluctuations in gas exchange (a few mm Hg).
 Lung Dynamics & Volumes

Vital capacity or VC – the maximum volume of air that can be

moved out during a single breath following a maximal inspiration.

The average in human is 4.5 L and 30 L in horse.

VC declines in many lung diseases such as asthma.

 Lung Dynamics & Volumes

Capacities Human (mL) Horse (mL)

TV, Tidal Volume 500 6000
IRV, Inspiratory Reserve Volume 3000 12000
IC, Inspiratory Capacity 3500 18000
ERV, Expiratory Reserve Volume 1000 12000
RV, Residual Volume 1200 12000
FRC, Functional Residual Capacity 2200 24000
VC, Vital Capacity 4500 30000
TLC, Total Lung Capacity 5700 42000
 Respiratory State

Hypoxic hypoxia
Characterized by a low arterial blood PO2 accompanied by inadequate
Hb and blood saturation.

It is due to;
1. a respiratory malfunction (normal alveolar PO2 but a reduced
arterial PO2).
2. exposure to an environment where environmental PO2 is reduced.

Occurs in low-oxygen habitats for water breathers, at high altitudes or

during diving for air breathers.
 Respiratory State

Anemic hypoxia
A reduced O2-carrying capacity of the blood.

Brought about by;

1. a decrease in circulating RBC
2. inadequate amount of Hb within the RBC
3. Hb poisoning (such as by carbon monoxide, a gas that binds
more tightly to heme than does O2)

The arterial PO2 is normal but the O2 content of arterial blood is lower
than normal because of the reduction in available Hb.
 Respiratory State

Circulatory hypoxia
Too little oxygenated blood is delivered to the tissue.

The arterial PO2 and O2 content may be normal, but too little
oxygenated blood reaches the cells.

Circulatory hypoxia can be restricted to a limited area as a result of a

local vascular spasm or blockage.

In contrast, widespread circulatory hypoxia can result from congestive

heart failure or circulatory shock.
 Respiratory State

Histotoxic hypoxia
O2 delivery to the tissue is normal but the cells cannot use the O2
available to them.

The classic example is, cyanide poisoning – cyanide blocks cellular

enzymes of the mitochondrial electron-transport chain.
 Respiratory State

Hypercapnia
Too excess CO2 in the arterial blood.

It can be due to;

1. hypoventilation (ventilation inadequate to meet the metabolic
needs for O2 delivery and CO2 removal)
2. exposure to high environmental CO2
 Respiratory State

Hypocapnia
Below normal arterial PCO2 level.

Brought about by hyperventilation; this occurs when an animal/human

overbreathes – the rate of ventilation is in excess of the body’s
metabolic needs for CO2 removal.

Hyperventilation can be triggered by anxiety states and by fever.

 Regulation of Respiration

Ventilation must occur frequently if not continuously to sustain life

processes.

Cardiac action/circulatory system and respiratory system must be

altered coordinately during ventilation activity.

Vertebrate respiratory and circulatory/cardiac system work together

to regulate gas delivery and plasma pH by;

1. Regulating ventilation (airflow).

2. Altering O2 carrying capacity.
3. Altering perfusion (blood flow).
 Regulation of Respiration

Respiratory control centre is located in the medulla oblongata and

pons. RCC received controlling signals of neural, chemical and
hormonal.

Respiratory and cardiac/circulatory system under control;

1. Intrinsic or local – regulated by a single tissue or organ on its
own.
2. Extrinsic or neural/hormonal – regulatory mechanisms initiated
outside an organ to alter its activity.
Regulation of Respiration
 Regulation of Respiration
Extrinsic Regulation

The autonomic nervous system can adjust airflow to suit the

vertebrate respiratory need.

Parasympathetic stimulation (quiet, relaxed situation), when the

demand for airflow is not high, promotes bronchoconstriction.
Bronchoconstriction – increased airway resistance by
promoting bronchiolar smooth muscle contraction.

Sympathetic stimulation (fight or flight, epinephrine), when the

demand for airflow increase, promotes bronchodilation.
Bronchodilation – decreased airway resistance by promoting
bronchiolar smooth muscle relaxation.

Activation of the sympathetic system simultaneously

increases blood flow.
 Regulation of Respiration
Intrinsic Regulation

Effect of CO2 on Bronchiolar Smooth Muscle

Bronchiolar smooth muscle is sensitive to local changes within its

immediate environment, particularly to local CO2 levels.

For example; if an alveolus is receiving too little ventilation in

comparison to perfusion → CO2 levels will increase in the alveolus →
CO2 act directly on the bronchiolar smooth muscle (detected by
chemoreceptor for CO2) → induce the airway to relax or decrease in
airway resistant.

The converse is also true, a localized decrease in CO2 associated

with an alveolus…….???
 Regulation of Respiration
Intrinsic Regulation

Effect of O2 on Pulmonary Arteriole Smooth Muscle

The local decrease in alveolar O2 concentration causes

vasoconstriction of the pulmonary arteriole → the result is a reduction
in blood flow to match the smaller airflow.

The local increase in alveolar O2 concentration causes vasodilation

of the pulmonary arteriole → the result is an increase in blood flow to
match the larger airflow.

Pulmonary arteries; vasoconstrict with decreased O2 and vasodilate

with increased O2.

Systemic arteries; vasoconstrict with increased O2 and vasodilate

with decreased O2.
Regulation of Respiration
Regulation of Respiration