Bridge Equipment

Capt. S. Swaroop
Nautical Faculty
B. Sc Nautical Science
Semester - V
 Marine Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging) : Marine Radar
is an instrument of near perfect synchronization. It needs no
calculator or computer to do its basic functions. Radar equipment
acts as the eye of the ship at sea. Ranges and bearings are obtained
on board ship of the targets around the ship by the fact that each
component does a specific job at the correct time. A short burst of
electromagnetic energy is sent out through the scanner which
bounces (reflects) off a target and returns to the receiver unit
through the scanner.
• Marine radar sets generally use a wavelength of 3cm (x-band) and
10 cm (s-band)
• Marine Radar mainly consists of four main units
• 1. Transmitter
• 2. Receiver
• 3. Scanner
• 4. Display
1-Transmitter : The transmitter sends out short powerful
burst of electromagnetic energy called pulses, through the
scanner at a specific number of times per second, called the
pulse repetition frequency (PRF) or pulse recurrence rate
(PRR). These pulses travel at the speed of light (300 mtrs per
micro second) and when they strike any object (target) in their
path, they are reflected back to the scanner as echoes.
2-Receiver : The receiver processes each echo after receiving
from the target and causes it to show up visually as a bright
spot , called a blip, on the screen of the display unit.
3-Display : The display unit has a circular screen representing
on a scale, an actual area around the ship and is called Plan
Position Indicator (PPI) because it gives a bird’s eye view of
the positions of the targets. The distance represented by the
radius of the screen is called the range scale in use and this
can be varied by a switch, as desired by the observer.
4-Scanner : Through the scanner the transmission and
reception takes place. During transmission the TR cell blocks
the receiver unit and during reception the TR cell blocks the
transmission unit. The scanner should rotate not less than 12
RPM and should rotate clockwise, continuous and automatic
through 360 degrees.
• Characteristics Of Radar:
• Vertical Beam Width (VBW)
• Horizontal Beam Width (HBW)
• Pulse Length (PL)
• Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)
• Wave Length (WL)
1. Vertical Beam Width (VBW): It is the vertical angle of the
scanner contained between the upper and power edges of the
radar beam. The upper and lower edges of the beam are taken
to be the lines joining the half-power points above and below
centre of the beam. If the VBW is too small, targets would be
missed due to rolling and pitching, if the VBW is too large the
energy sent out through the scanner would be spread out over a
large vertical angle.
 This means a decrease in the intensity of the beam whereby
the amount of energy striking unit area of a target would be
small, resulting in loss of echo strength and consequent
decrease in the range of first detection of target.
2. Horizontal Beam Width (HBW) : It is the angle at the scanner
contained between the leading and trailing (side) edges of the
radar beam. The leading and trailing edges of the beam are
taken to be the lines joining the half-power points ahead and
behind the centre of the beam, in the direction of rotation of
the scanner. HBW causes all the target to appear larger in
azimuth by the amount equal to half the HBW on either side.
The value of the HBW of a radar set depends on the type of
scanner and its horizontal size. In commercial marine radar
sets the HBW is between 0.6 – 2 deg.
3. Pulse Length (PL): Pulse Length is the time taken for a pulse
to leave the scanner ie., the interval between the instant the
leading edge of the pulse leaves the scanner and the instant
trailing edge leaves the scanner. Pulse Length is therefore,
usually expressed in micro-seconds but, the speed of radio
waves being taken to be 300 m/ , PL may also be expressed in
meters, if and when required to do so, it is also referred to as
Pulse Width (PW), and is controlled by the transmitter. Pulse
Length does not affect range accuracy, but range
discrimination. Marine radar sets may have 3 or 4 values of
PL, and are changed over with the change of range.
4. Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) : It is the number of
pulses sent out through the scanner in one second. The unit,
if used is Hertz. Marine radar sets have 2 or 3 values of PRF,
between 500 – 4000. PRF is also referred to as Pulse
Recurrence Rate(PRR). A higher value of PRF is preferred for a
clear and detailed picture
Longer range scales have a low PRF while the shorter range
scales have a high PRF.
5. Wave Length (WL) : Wave Length of a commercial radar set
may be either 3cm called X-band (9300-9500 mhz) or 10cm
called S-band(2900-3100 mhz). Radar pulses of different wave
lengths are influenced differently by external factors. Hence
the wave length of a radar set directly affects its performance.
After a radar pulse has left the scanner, its path of travel and
energy content are influenced by two main factors
1- Attenuation
2- Diffraction
For a marine radar set 3cm wave length is generally preferred.
If there are two radar sets of 3cm and 10 cm, they will have
inter switching facility for the display unit. In case any one
display fails or becomes non operational.
Basic Components Of Radar set :
1. Power Source 12. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
2. Delay Line 13. Time Base Unit
3. Trigger Unit 14. Deflection Coil
4. Modulator 15. Trace Blank
5. Magnetron
6. Scanner
7. T.R. Cell
8. Local Oscillator
9. Mixer Unit
10. I. F Amplifier
11. Video Amplifier
ty
Basic Controls of Marine Radar Set :
1. Anti Clutter 14. Guard Zone
2. Range Rings 15. Heading Marker
3. Variable Range Marker(VRM) 16. Off Centre Control
4. Electronic Bearing Line(EBL) 17. Head Up
5.Electronic Range & Bearing Line (cursor)
6. Manual Tuning Switch 18. North Up
7. Gain Control 19. Course Up
8. Fast Time Control (FTC) 20. Target Acquire
9. Brilliance 21. Target Data
10.Focus 22. Power Control Switch
11.Parallel Index Lines (PI) 23. Standby Switch
12.Range Control 24. Alarm Reset Switch
13.Power On/Off switch 25. Off Centre
Positioning Of Radar Display( Safe Distance) : It has been said
that exposure to continuous, powerful electro-magnetic
energy (500kw) may cause some ill-effects to human health,
but pulses transmitted by marine radar are very short, weak
(25-60 kw) and present no danger at distances beyond 1
meter. One should avoid standing close to the radar system
when not required.
When selecting a site for the display unit, the following points
should be considered.
1. Safe distance from magnetic compass
2. Lighting from the display may cause problem for lookout
3. Viewing ability from site
4. Facilities for viewing radar screen
5. Facility for plotting
6. Comparison with the chart
7. Safe distance from any equipment
8. Access for purpose of repairing
• Range Discrimination : It is the ability of radar set to clearly
distinguish two small targets on the same bearing and slightly
different in ranges, as two separate targets on the display (PPI).
The factors that governs this is the Pulse Length (PL) which
causes all paint to expand rapidly outward by ½ pulse length in
metres.
• Bearing Discrimination : It is the ability of a radar set to clearly
distinguish two targets on the same range and slightly different
in bearings, as two separate targets on the display (PPI). The
factor which causes this is the Horizontal Beam width (HBW).
• Range Accuracy : As per performance standards for
navigational radar (IMO), the error in the range of an object,
obtained by using the range or the variable range marker,
should not exceed 1% of the maximum range of the scale in
use, or 30, whichever is greater.
Range accuracy of a radar set depends on:
1. Correct synchronization.
2. Uniformity and rectilinearity of the of the time base.
3. The scale of size of the tracing spot.
4. Height of the scanner.
Bearing Accuracy : As per performance standards for
navigational radar (IMO), the error in the bearing of an object,
obtained by using the Electronic Bearing Line (EBL) or the
cursor, should be capable of being measured with an accuracy
equal to, or better than +/- 1 deg.
Bearing accuracy of a radar set depends on :
1. Correct alignment of heading marker and scanner.
2. Correct alignment of heading marker and bearing scale.
3. Gyro error to be checked and corrected.
4. Type of bearing marker used.
5. Rectilinearity of the trace.
6. Beam Width distortion.
7. Scale size of the spot.
Minimum Range : The minimum detection range of marine
radar set depends on the following factors,
1. The Pulse Length.
2. The de-ionisation delay.
3. The Vertical Beam Width and height of the scanner.
4. The Wave Length.
Maximum Range : The maximum range of a marine radar set
depends on the following factors,
1. Height of the scanner
2. Power of the set
3. Wave Length
4. Pulse Repetition Frequency
5. Pulse Length
5. Vertical Beam Width & Horizontal Beam Width
6. Receiver senstivity
7. Nature of target
8. Weather condition
9. Sea & swell
Factors Affecting Radar Detection :
1- Radar Horizon
2- Sub-refraction
3- Super-refraction
4- Ducting
Radar Horizon : It is the distance from the ship to the sea, up to where
the radar rays can detect the target around the ship. The range of the
radar horizon depends on the height of the scanner and on the
amount of bending of radar rays.
There are various types of horizon:
Radar Horizon
Geometric Horizon
Visible Horizon
Theoretical Horizon
Weather Effects Radar Detection Range : When radio waves pass
through the atmosphere, some of their energy is lost due to
absorption , scattering and diffraction. Such loss of energy is termed
attenuation in the atmosphere. Weather conditions such as drizzle,
rain, hail, snow and fog cause loss of echo strength and consequent
decrease in detection range of targets.
1- Drizzle 4- Snow
2- Rain 5- Fog
3- Hail 6- Sandstorm
• Factors Causing Faulty Interpretation : The following factors
cause the faulty interpretation of the target on the radar
display unit, which officer of the watch should be able to
identify to avoid confusion about the target.
1- Indirect Echo (False Echo)
2- Side Lobe Echoes
3- Multiple Echoes
4- Second Trace Echo
• Errors in Range and Bearing : The errors in the range and
bearing of a target on the radar display may be caused due to
1- Improper alignment of display centre
2- Improper alignment of cursor
3- Misalignment of VRM & EBL
4- Scanner’s ahead direction not aligned with ship’s head
• Points of concern for Officer Of The Watch
1- Shadow Areas (small targets on the other side of large ship
and on the opposite side of hills)
2- Shadow Sectors ( masts, cranes and derricks)
3- Blind Sectors (funnel )
Setting Up and Maintaining of Radar Display : The main
aim is to obtain a good navigational picture so that the radar
set can be used to the best of its ability as an aid to
navigation and collision avoidance. The sequence in
switching on and employing the controls can be different as
per manufacturer, but general procedure is as given below :
1. Make sure that the scanner is clear and scanner switch on.
2. Set gain control to minimum, brilliance & anti clutter zero.
3. Switch on the set, wait for transmission to start.
4. Turn up the brilliance control till trace is clearly visible.
5. Check for the cursor to be at the centre.
6. Check for VRM & EBL, adjust to be clearly visible.
7. Adjust the gain control for clear background (speckled).
8. Check & adjust other controls, feed in required data.
To switch on and monitor the targets on the radar display, the
Officer of the Watch has to know all the controls and their
functions.
Transmitter Controls:
1. Magnetron
2. Wave Guide
3. Scanner
Reception (Receiver) Controls:
1. T.R Cell 4. Linear Amplification
2. Mixer and L.O. 5. Logarithmic Amplification
3. I.F Amplifier
Display Controls:
1. Heading Marker 2. On / Off Switch 3. Standby Switch
4. PI Selector 5. Range selector 6. Scale Illumination
7. Off Centre 8. P.M Control 9. Scanner On/ Off 10. EBL
11.Display Selection 12. Rang Rings 13. Anti-clutter 14. VRM
15. Cursor 16. Panel Illumination 17. Relative/True motion
Display : Display has a circular screen representing on a scale,
an actual area around the ship and is called the Plan Position
Indicator (PPI) because it gives a bird’s eye view (plan) of the
positions of targets around the ship. The distance represented
by the radius of the screen is called the range scale in use.
There are two types of display
1. True Motion Display
2. Relative Motion Display
True Motion Display: In true motion display the origin (centre
–represents own ship) moves across the radar screen at the
course and speed of the own ship. The course is fed in directly
from the gyro compass and speed from the ship’s log. The
movement of all targets on the radar screen are true,
stationary targets remain stationary where as moving targets
move on the screen on their actual courses and speeds.
The centre may be shifted at any time to any convenient part
of the radar screen, as desired by the operator. During the
course of its run, when the centre reaches its limiting point it
will jump back to the place where it was shifted. The heading
marker, EBL, VRM, range rings move along with the origin.
Relative Motion Display : In relative motion display the centre
(origin-represents own ship ) remains stationary, while all
other targets move on the radar screen, with a course and
speed opposite to that of own vessel. In this the stationary
targets also appear to move opposite to the own ship’s course
and speed on the radar screen.
The (origin)centre is normally centred over the radar screen
but can be shifted to a desired place on the radar display by
the operator.
• Kind of Radar Displays
1- Head Up Display
2- North Up Display
3- Course Up Display
4- Sea stabilised Display
5- Ground Stabilised Display
Head Up Display : In head up display the 12 o’clock or 000 of
display represents the own ship’s course and hence heading
marker remains at the 000 of the fixed, graduated around the
PPI, in this all bearings are relative. The left side of the radar
screen denotes port side and right side, starboard side of the
ship. To find the true bearing of the target, the own ship’s
heading must be known to the operator.
The sum of the relative bearing of the target and true course
of own ship will give the true bearing of the target. If the sum
exceeds 360 deg, then 360 deg must be subtracted from the
total to obtain the true bearing of the target. During course
alteration smudging of the picture takes place.
North Up Display :In this the 12 o’clock or 000 of the display
represents true north and the heading marker represents the
true course of the own ship being steered. All bearings of
targets are true. As the own ship alters course, the heading
marker swings around to the new course on the display, but
all targets remain on their original (same) place, they will not
shift. Hence smudging of targets does not take place during
the course alterations or yaw.
Course Up Display : This is similar to the head up display, in
this all bearings are true, smudging of the picture will not take
place during course alteration. Shadow sectors and blind
sectors remain on the same parts of the display. The only
drawback is that the picture is course up while the chart is
north up.
Performance Monitor : Press the performance
monitor button. Plume will appear. Measure the plume and
compare it with the maker's reading at the time
of radar installation. The Performance Monitor provides an
effective means of verifying the overall performance of Radar.
The Performance Monitor transmits a coded signal into the
antenna for display . The range and number of arcs display on
the Radar Image will indicate the performance of the system.
The Performance Monitor Operators Manual will provide
detailed instructions.
• PM
Measurement Of Range and Bearing :
Range Measurement : Range of any target on the display (PPI)
screen can be measured by the following methods. Range can
also be obtained by acquiring the target, there after asking for
target data details, in which required in-formations are given.
1- Range Rings 2- Cursor
3- Variable Range Marker (VRM)
Bearing Measurement : Bearing of any target on the display
(PPI) screen can be measured by the following methods.
Bearing can also be obtained by acquiring the target, there
after asking for target data details, in which required in-
formations are given.
1- Parallel Index Line 2- Electronic Bearing Line
3- Cursor
 Use Of Marine Radar
To calculate range and bearing of a target and thereafter use
the information to determine speed, course etc
Integration with other shipboard equipment (such as ECDIS) to
derive precise data
Navigating own vessel and her course with regard to collision
avoidance
Fixing the ship’s position using terrestrial objects such as
lighthouses, buoys etc
Differentiating between targets in high traffic density areas
Determination of the weather, to an extent
Use by VTS in controlling coastal traffic
Usage of features such as parallel indexing to ensure safe
navigation
Alleviating workload on the OOW on the bridge
Used extensively in pilotage that covers the above aspects
IMO Performance Standards for Radar Equipment
General : The radar equipment should provide an indication,
in relation to the ship of the position of other surface craft ,
obstructions, buoys, shorelines and navigational marks in a
manner which will assist in navigation and avoiding collision.
Range Performance : The operational requirement under
propagation conditions, when the radar antenna is mounted
at a height of 1.5 mtr above sea level, is that the equipment
should in the absence of clutter give a clear indication of:
Coastlines :At 20 nm when the ground rises to 60m
:At 7 nm when the ground rises to 6m
Surface Objects :At 7nm a ship of 5000tgt
:At 3nm a small ship of 10m in length
:At 2nm an object such navigational buoy
• Minimum Range : The surface objects specified above should
be clearly displayed from a minimum range of 50 mtrs up to a
range of one nautical mile, without changing the setting of
controls other than the range selector.
• Display :The equipment should without external magnifica
tion provide a relative plan display in the head up un
stabilized mode with an effective diameter of not less than:
1. 180mm on ships of 500tgt and more but less than 1600tgt.
2. 250mm on ships of 1600tgt and more but less than 10000
tgt.
3.340mm in the case of one display and 250mm in the case of
other on ships of 10000 tgt and upwards.
The equipment should provide one of the two following sets
of range scales of display :
1- 1.5, 3, 6, 12 & 24 nm and one range scale of not less than
0.5nm and not greater than 0.8nm.
2- 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 & 32 nm
Additional range scales may be provided.
The range scale displayed and the distance between range rings
should be clearly indicated at all times.
Range Measurement :
1- Fixed electronic range rings should be provided for range
measurements as follows:
a- Where range scales are provided in accordance with the
above 1, on the range scale of between 0.5 & 0.8 nm at
least two range rings should be provided and on each of
other range scales six range rings should be provided.
b- Where range scales are provided in accordance with above 2,
four range rings should be provided on each of the range rings.
2. A variable electronic range marker should be provided with
a numeric readout of range.
3. The fixed range rings and the variable range marker should
enable the range of an object to be measured with an error
not exceeding 1.5 % of the maximum range of the scale in
use or 70 mtrs, whichever is the greater.
4. It should be possible to vary the brilliance of the fixed range
rings and the variable range marker and to remove them
completely from the display.
Heading Indicator :
1. The heading of the ship should be indicated by a line on the
display with a maximum error not greater than +/- 1 deg.
The thickness of the displayed heading line should not be
greater than 0.5 deg.
2. Provision should be made to switch off the heading marker
by a device which can not be left in the “heading marker in
the off “ position.
Bearing measurement :
1. Provision should be made to obtain quickly the bearing of
any object whose echo appears on the display.
2. The means provided for obtaining bearing should enable
the bearing of a target whose echo appears on the display
to be measured with an accuracy of +/- 1 deg or better.
Discrimination :
1. The equipment should be capable of displaying as separate
indications on a range scale of 2 nm or less, two similar
targets at a range of between 50 % & 100% of the range scale
in use, and on the same azimuth, separated by not more than
50 mtrs in range.
2. The equipment should be capable of displaying as separate
indications of two small targets both situated at the same
range between 50% &100% of the 1.5 or 2 nm range scales,
and separated by not more than 2.5 degs in azimuth.
Roll Or Pitch : The performance of the equipment should be
such that when the ship is rolling or pitching up to + / - 10
degs the range performance requirements of range measure
ment should be met.
Scan : The scan should be clockwise, continuous and
automatic through 360 degs of azimuth. The scan rate should
be not less than 12 revolutions per minute. The equipment
should operate satisfactorily in relative wind speed of up to
100 knots.
Azimuth Stabilization :
1. Means should be provided to enable the display to be
stabilized in azimuth by a transmitting compass. The equip
ment should be provided with a compass input to enable
it to be stabilized in azimuth. The accuracy of alignment
with the compass transmission should be within 0.5 degs
with a compass rotation rate of 2 revolution per minute.
2. The equipment should operate satisfactorily in the un
stabilized mode when the compass control in inoperative.
Performance Check : Means should be available, while the
equipment is used operationally, to determine readily a
significant drop in performance relative to a calibration
standard established at the time of installation, and the
equipment is correctly tuned in the absence of targets.
Anti-clutter Devices : Suitable means should be provided for
the suppression of unwanted echoes from sea clutter, rain,
and other forms of precipitation, clouds and sandstorms. It
should be possible to adjust manually and continually the anti
clutter controls. Anti-clutter controls should be inoperative in
the fully anti-clockwise positions. In addition, automatic anti
clutter controls may be provided, however, they must be
capable of being switched off.
Operation :
1. The equipment should be capable of being switched on and
operated from the display position.
2. Operational controls should be accessible and easy to
identify and use.
3. Where symbols are used, they should comply with the
requirement .
4. After switching on from off the equipment should become
fully operational within 4 minutes.
5. A standby condition should be provided from which the
equipment can be brought to an operational condition
within 15 seconds.
Interference : After installation on board, the bearing
accuracy as prescribed in these performance standards
should be
maintained without further adjustment irrespective of the
movement of the ship in the earth’s magnetic field.
Antenna System : The antenna system should be installed in
such a manner that the design efficiency of the radar system
is not substantially impaired
Operation With Radar Beacons :
1. All radar operating in the 3cm band should be capable of
operating in a horizontal polarized mode.
2. It should be possible to switch off those signal processing
facilities which might prevent a radar beacon from being
shown on the radar display.
Multiple Radar Installations :
1. Where two radars are to be carried they should be installed
so that they can be operated individually and both can be
operated simultaneously without being dependant up on
one another.
2. Where two radars are fitted, inter witching facilities may be
provided to improve the flexibility and availability of the
overall radar installation. Failure of one would not affect the
operation of the other.
• Limitations of ‘X’ and ‘S’ Band Radars
Radar Plotting : Radar plotting is an art of obtaining all the
required in-formations from two or more observations of
each target on a radar screen. To estimate the degree of risk
of collision with another vessel, to forecast her closets point
of approach. It involves the construction of a triangle of
relative velocities.
Plotting is divided into two
1. Relative Plotting
2. True Plotting
Instruments Required for Radar Plotting :
1. Plotting Sheet 4. Drawing Compass (half moon)
2. Parallel Ruler & Divider 5. 6 inch or12 inch Scale
3. Pencil &Eraser 6. Calculator
Procedure for Plotting : The interval between two
observations of a radar plot is called the plotting interval. This
depends on the range scale in use, the speed of own ship, the
speeds of targets, but most often the intervals used are 6 or
12 minutes.
The following letters are used to denote various points on the
plotting sheet.
C- Centre of the plotting sheet, representing the origin of the
display.
O- Relative position of target at the beginning of the plotting
interval.
A- Relative position of target at the end of the plotting interval
OA- The relative movement of the target across the radar
screen. This line produced is called the line of approach.
N- The closets point of approach (CPA).
CN- CN is perpendicular to OA, CPA range.
WO- Own ship’s course and speed (distance) during the
plotting interval.
WA- Target’s true course and speed during the plotting
interval.
What to find out from the plotting :
1- True course of the target
2- Speed of the target
3- Closets Point of Approach (CPA)
4- Time of CPA
5- Aspect of the vessel
How to Make The Report Of a Target to The Master : A target
should be reported to the Master on detection in stages.
By Radar:
Stage -I
At 0800 hrs, Bearing & Range of the target (020x12m)
Stage -II
At 0806 hrs, Bearing & Range of the target (019x10.5m)
drawing fwd / aft and range increasing / decreasing.
Stage -III
At 0812 hrs, Bearing & Range of the target (017x9m)
Course of the target-273 deg, speed-12.5kts, CPA-1.9m
drawing fwd / aft, range decreasing / increasing,
CPA time 0847 hrs. Aspect of the target Red- 76 deg (Port)
By Visual :
Stage –I
At 0800 hrs, target on 2/3/4 point on port / stbd side
Stage –II
At 0806 hrs, target on 1/2/3 point on port /stbd side
drawing forward / drawing aft
Stage –III
At 0812 hrs, target on 1/2/3 point on port /stbd side
drawing forward / aft, range increasing / decreasing
crossing from port to stbd or stbd to port
Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA)
Vector: Targets being tracked should display a vector on the
display , indicating the course of the target, (time adjustable
or having a fixed time scale) in a true or relative motion form
which clearly indicates the target’s predicted motion.
Vector Length Control (Future Position Control): This thumb
wheel control is set by the operator in minutes of time,
resulting in instantaneous vector length on the display. A
switch is provided to select the true motion / relative motion
vectors
Vector lengths can be related to range scale :
12 minutes for 12 miles scale, 6 minutes for 6 miles scale.
Some ARPA have a facility for automatic vector suppression
for non dangerous targets, while tracking is continued.
Advantages of Vectors :
1. It shows the predicted motion of the targets.
2. It indicates the direction of the targets.
3. Show the meeting (Interception) point of the targets
4. Help to know if any change in the direction of the targets.
5. Identification of acquired targets.
6. Help in making assessment of the targets.
Limitations of the Vectors :
1.