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The document discusses key concepts related to formulating hypotheses for scientific research, including:
1) A hypothesis is a tentative, testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables that aims to explain an observed phenomenon. It should be falsifiable and guide the research approach.
2) Researchers develop hypotheses by identifying topics of interest, reviewing relevant literature, and proposing explanations for observed patterns that can be tested through experimentation or observation.
3) Important characteristics of a good hypothesis include being based on the research topic, having measurable variables, and having a potential method for verification or falsification. The hypothesis forms the core of a research study.
The document discusses key concepts related to formulating hypotheses for scientific research, including:
1) A hypothesis is a tentative, testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables that aims to explain an observed phenomenon. It should be falsifiable and guide the research approach.
2) Researchers develop hypotheses by identifying topics of interest, reviewing relevant literature, and proposing explanations for observed patterns that can be tested through experimentation or observation.
3) Important characteristics of a good hypothesis include being based on the research topic, having measurable variables, and having a potential method for verification or falsification. The hypothesis forms the core of a research study.
The document discusses key concepts related to formulating hypotheses for scientific research, including:
1) A hypothesis is a tentative, testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables that aims to explain an observed phenomenon. It should be falsifiable and guide the research approach.
2) Researchers develop hypotheses by identifying topics of interest, reviewing relevant literature, and proposing explanations for observed patterns that can be tested through experimentation or observation.
3) Important characteristics of a good hypothesis include being based on the research topic, having measurable variables, and having a potential method for verification or falsification. The hypothesis forms the core of a research study.
University of Mysore Manasagangtri, Mysuru 570 006
Workshop on “Research Methods and Analysis”
International Center, University of Mysore 14th March 2019 Framing a scientific paper The structure of a paper mirrors that of an hourglass, opening broadly and narrowing to the specific question, hypothesis, methods, and results of the study. Effective papers widen again in the discussion and conclusion, connecting the study back to the existing literature and explaining how the current study filled a knowledge gap. (Taylor Chock, 2016) RQ vs Hypothesis • General concern: Hb of mother and birth weight of baby • RQ: Is anaemia in pregnancy associated with low BW in new born? • Hypothesis: There is no difference in the incidence of LBWs in the mothers who are not anaemic. • RH: The incidence of LBWs in mothers who are anaemic is higher than those who are not. Research hypothesis • Hypo + thesis Hypo: Composition of two or more variables which is to be verified Thesis: Position of these variables in the specific frame of reference • A hypothesis is a tentative solution of a problem • It is a specific, testable prediction about what is expected to happen in a study. • Presumptive statement of a proposition which the investigator seeks to prove • Offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on some rationale Key Terms to Know • Hypothesis: An educated guess about the possible relationship between two or more variables. • Variable: A factor or element that can change in observable and measurable ways. • Operational Definition: A full description of exactly how variables are defined, how they will be manipulated, and how they will be measured. Nature of hypothesis • Conceptual • Verbal statement in a declarative form • Verbal expression of ideas and concepts ready enough for empirical verification • Contains same empirical reference and indicates the tentative relationship between two or more variables • Related to the future verification and not to the past facts and information • Pivot of a scientific research Functions of hypothesis (McAshan 1979) • Temporary solution of a problem concerning some truth which enables an investigator to start his research work • Offers a basis in establishing the specifies - what to study and may provide possible solutions to the problem • Each hypothesis may lead to formulate another hypothesis • Sensitize the researcher to work selectively and have very realistic approach to the problem • Offer the simple means for collecting evidences to the verification Importance of hypothesis • Provide direction to research and prevent the review of irrelevant literature and helps collection of useful data • Helps in selecting pertinent fact • Helps in drawing conclusions • Indispensable research instrument, for they build a bridge between the problem and the location of empirical evidence that may solve the problem • Provides the map that guides and expedites the exploration of the phenomenon under consideration Characteristics of good hypothesis • Agrees with the observed facts • Does not conflict with any law of nature known to be true • Stated in the simplest possible form • Permit the application of deductive reasoning • Shows very clear verbalization • Ensures that the verification methods are under control of the investigator • Guarantees that available tools and techniques will be effectively used for the purpose of verification • Take into account different types of controls for verification • Ensures that the sample is really approachable • Indicates clearly the role of different variables in the study • Maintains a very apparent distinction with what is called theory law, facts, assumption and pressures. Reasoning Inductive: uses patterns to arrive At a conclusion (conjecture) Deductive: uses facts, rules, definitions or properties to arrive at conclusion Role of hypothesis • Basis for any scientific investigation either in social science and pure science • Axel of any research process • All the research activities are oriental towards the verification of the hypothesis • Significant in the formulation of theory, principles and laws • Tentative theory and after verification takes the shape of final theory -Emerges from a new hypothesis and this is then subjected to verification, after the verification it become a new theory in the field of studies • This cycle process continues How Do Researchers come up with a Hypothesis? • In many cases, researchers might draw a hypothesis from a specific theory or build on previous research. For example, prior research has shown that stress can impact the immune system. So a researcher might for a specific hypothesis that: "People with high-stress levels will be more likely to contract a common cold after being exposed to the virus than are people who have low-stress levels." • In other instances, researchers might look at commonly held beliefs or folk wisdom. "Birds of a feather flock together" is one example of folk wisdom that a psychologist might try to investigate. The researcher might pose a specific hypothesis that "People tend to select romantic partners who are similar to them in interests and educational level." Elements of a Good Hypothesis • Is your hypothesis based on your research topic? • Can your hypothesis be tested? • Does your hypothesis include independent and dependent variables? • Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time doing background research on your topic. • Once you have completed a literature review, start thinking about potential questions you still have. • Pay attention to the discussion section in the journal articles you read. How to form a Hypothesis? • Identify an area of interest and develop a hypothesis to be tested. • Hypothesis is not a guess, it is actually much more specific. • It is an educated guess about the relationship between two or more variables. Ex: a researcher might be interested in the relationship between study habits and test anxiety. -Propose a hypothesis about how these two variables are related, such as "Test anxiety decreases as a result of effective study habits." • In order to form a hypothesis, take these steps: -Start by collecting as many observations about something as you can. -Evaluate these observations and look for possible causes of the problem. -Create a list of possible explanations that you might want to explore. -Think of ways that you could confirm or disprove each hypothesis through experimentation (falsifiability). Falsifiability • It is an important part of any valid hypothesis. In order to test a claim scientifically, it must be possible that the claim could also be proven false. • It does not mean that the idea is false. It means that if something was false, then it is possible to demonstrate that it is false. • One of the hallmarks of a pseudoscience is that it makes claims that cannot be refuted or proven false. Constructing a hypothesis • A hypothesis is a testable explanation of an observed occurrence in nature, or, more specifically, why something you observed is occurring. • Hypotheses relate directly to research questions, are written in the present tense, and can be tested through observation or experimentation. • Hypothesis vs. prediction -Hypothesis attempts to explain the mechanism underlying a pattern -Prediction states an expectation regarding the results. • Hypotheses provide powerful tools for structuring research, generating specific predictions and designing experiments. Example: • Observation: Brown-headed cowbird nestlings refrain from ejecting host offspring from the nest even though those offspring compete for limited parental resources. • Research question: Why do nestling cowbirds tolerate the presence of host offspring in the nest? • Hypothesis: The presence of host offspring causes parents to bring more food to the nest. • Prediction: Cowbird nestlings will grow at a faster rate in nests that contain host offspring. Choosing an appropriate statistical test Goal ND NND BD Describe one group Mean, SD Median, IQ range Proportion Compare one group to a One-sample t- Wilcoxon test χ2 or binomial test hypothetical value test Compare two unpaired groups Unpaired t-test Mann-Whitney Fisher’s exact test; test χ2 for large samples Compare two paired groups Paired t-test Wilcoxon test McNemar’s test
Compare three or more One-way ANOVA Kruskal-Wallis test χ2
unmatched groups Compare three or more Repeated- Friedman test Cochrane Q test matched groups measures ANOVA Quantify association between Pearson Spearman Contingency two variables correlation correlation coefficients Predict value from another Simple regression Non-parametric Simple logistic measured variable regression regression Predict value from several Multiple Multiple logistic measured variables regression regression Hypothesis testing • To answer a statistical question, the question is translated into a hypothesis – a statement which can be subjected to test • Depending on the result of the test, the hypothesis is accepted or rejected. • The hypothesis tested is known as the Null Hypothesis (H0). • This must be in the form of a true/false statement • For every H0, there is an Alternative Hypothesis (HA). Construction of hypothesis • If there are two possible explanations always accept the simplest • It is simpler to propose that there is no difference between two sets of results than to say that there is a difference. • The H0 has priority and is not rejected unless there is strong statistical evidence against it. • ‘Do not reject H0’means that there is insufficient evidence against H0 and in favour of HA. Does not prove that the HA may be true. • In order to decide whether to accept or reject the H0, the level of significance (α ) required of the result must be decided. • α = 0.05 – significant (Confidence interval 95%, P = 1 – 0.95 = 0.05), most commonly used. • α = 0.01 – highly significant (CI 99%, P = 1 – 0.99 = 0.01), strong statistical evidence. • α = 0.001 – very highly significant (CI 99.9%, P = 1 – 0.999 = 0.001), rarely used. Procedure for hypothesis testing 1. Define H0 and HA 2. Choose a value for α. 3. Calculate the value of the test statistic. 4. Compare the calculated value with a table of the critical values of the test statistic. 5. If the calculated value of the test statistic is less than the critical value from the table, accept the H0. 6. Greater than or equal to the critical value from the table, reject the H0 and accept the HA. A small P-value can arise when any difference is tiny but the sample sizes very large; conversely, a large P-value can arise when the effect is large but the sample size is small. Use of Normal Distribution • Simplest test of significance • Standard form N(0,1) • Single observation is given, whose numerical value is Z. • The NH is that Z has been picked random from N(0,1). • CF is represented by the area under the FC; Total area = 1 • Probability of finding a member whose value is less than or equal to Z when choosing one at random from population. • Z = -1.96 (CF of values of Z less than -1.96 is 0.025; 2½%),-2.58 (0.005; ½% ), -3.29 (0.0005; 1/20%) • Probability of obtaining a value of Z less or >1.96 is 0.05 or 5%; implies that probability of obtaining a value of Z between -1.96 and +1.96 is 0.95. E.g. Single observation is given, from a normal population whose variance is known; test the hypothesis that the mean of this population is equal to some specified value µ. NH: an observation x is distributed according to N(7.25, 1.69). A value x = 3.35 is then observed; is this observation consistent with the hypothesis? (x- µ) / sd. Standard scores (Z-scores) • Define the position of a score in relation to the mean using the SD as a unit of measurement. • Useful for comparing data points in different distributions • Z = (score – mean) / SD • No. of SDs by which the score departs from the sample mean. • Normalizes distributions, hence can be used to compare data from different sets. • Ex. Joe’s performance in test 1 and test 2 improve or decline. 1. Joe scored 71.2% in test 1 (mean = 65.4%, SD = 3.55) Z = (71.2 - 65.4) / 3.55 = 1.63 2. Joe scored 66.8% in test 2 (mean = 61.1%, SD = 2.54) Z = 66.8 – 61.1) / 2.54 = 2.24 Conclusion: Joe did better, compared with the rest of his classmates, in test 2 than test 1, even though his mark was lower in the second test. Student’s t-test (t-test) • Difference between experimental and control tests • Paired t-test: each data point in one group corresponds to a matching data point in the other group • Unpaired t-test: used whether or not the groups contain matching data points • Parametric test • Continuous, interval data, compares a whole population or samples randomly from a larger population • Normally distributed • Sample size less than 30 • The sample size should not differ hugely between the groups. Examples 1. NH: The following 10 observations could reasonably have been taken from a ND whose mean was 0.6. 2. Difference between two means NH: Both samples were drawn from the same population i.e. had the same mean as well as the same variance. Possibility of making an error Type I error: Falsely rejecting a true H0. Type II error: Failure to reject a false H0. Have stringent rejection limit (α = 0.05) One- or two-tailed test: One-tailed: used where there is some basis (e.g. previous experimental observation) to predict the direction of the difference (a new drug is more effective than the existing one) Two-tailed: there is no basis to assume that there may be a significant difference between the groups Paired and unpaired t-test ANOVA (F-test) • More than two sample means. • NH: There is no difference among means • If F is significant, compare the paired means. • LSD • MRT -Duncan’s MRT -Schiff’s -Newman Keuls -Tukey’s Chi-square test
1. Goodness-of-fit: To determine whether observed sample frequencies
differ significantly from expected frequencies specified in the NH. A set of data is expected to show the ratio of 9:3:3:1. A sample of 556 observations gave totals 315, 101, 108 and 32 respectively in the four groups. Test whether this agrees with the given ratio.
2. Contingency tables (r x c): The Chi Square statistic is commonly used
for testing relationships between categorical variables. The NH of the Chi-Square test is that no relationship exists on the categorical variables in the population; they are independent. Each member of population has been examined for two characteristics (categories A and B); e.g. leaf colour (green, yellow) and vigour (good, weak). NH: A and B are independent Regression analysis • If there is a significant linear relationship between the independent variable X and the dependent variable Y, the slope will not equal zero. • The null hypothesis states that the slope is equal to zero, and the alternative hypothesis states that the slope is not equal to zero. Correlation • Null hypothesis states that the population correlation coefficient is equal to a hypothesized value (usually 0 indicating no linear correlation), against the alternative hypothesis that it is not equal (or less than, or greater than) the hypothesized value. Aim, Objectives, Rationale • Aim: What is the precise target of this research? • Specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, timely • Longer version of the title. -Why is research necessary? -What is all about? -How you are going to do it? • Precision: does the aim give precise goal? • Have only One aim. Do not use words ‘like’ ‘and’ ‘or’ ‘also’. • Will it be clear when you have met your aim? • Start with ‘To’ and then a verb such as investigate, establish etc. • Clarity: Is the aim clear to everyone? • Must be research focused. Objectives • What steps do I need to achieve the aim? • Should be in a logical sequence • Each objective must contribute to aim and research-oriented • Should not include methodology • Practical • 2-4 achievable • First one or two should relate to the secondary research. • Last one or two should be about analysis and conclusive to recommend for action Rationale • Why spend time doing this research? • Identify a problem or a need • How your research can address the problem? • Information decision makers • Evaluate performance • Advance human knowledge • To investigate/understand a problem or theory • Who will be benefited and how? • Use references to support your rationale (literature) Research objectives • A critical component of a successful research engagement is a set of clearly defined and meaningful objectives. • Having well-defined objectives narrows and focuses the research and ensures that the findings are relevant to decision-makers. • The research objectives drive all aspects of the methodology, including instrument design, data collection, analysis, and ultimately the recommendations. Six important guidelines that should be observed when developing research objectives: 1. Presented briefly and concisely 2. Presented in logical sequence 3. Realistic (e.g., achieved within the expected timeframe, within the available resources) 4. Phrased in operational terms (in a way that brings the organization closer to its business objectives) 5. Use action verbs that are specific enough to be evaluated or measured (e.g., assess, determine, compare, verify, calculate, describe) 6. Static - once the study work begins (i.e., objectives should not be moving targets) Objectives are usually headed by infinitive verbs such as: • To identify. • To establish. • To describe. • To determine. • To estimate. • To develop. • To compare. • To analyse. Sample objectives General: To evaluate if home-based care (CHBC) projects in Zimbabwe provide adequate, affordable and sustainable cre of good quality to people with HIV/AIDS and to identify in which these services can be improved. Specific: • To identify the full range of economic, psychosocial, health/nursing care and other needs of patients and their families affected by AIDS • To determine the extent to which formal and informal support systems address their needs from the view point of service providers as well as patients • To determine the economic costs of CHBC to the patient and family as well as to the formal CHBC programme themselves. • To relate the calculated costs to the quality of care provided to the patient by the family and to the family/patient by the CHBC programme. Research statement: “Effectiveness of planned teaching or knowledge of staff nurses working in psychiatric unit regarding Physical Restraints for psychiatric patient in selected hospital of Vidarbha Region”. General objective: To assess the knowledge of staff nurses working in psychiatric unit regarding physical restraint Specific objectives: • To assess the knowledge regarding Physical Restraints among nurses working in psychiatric unit • To evaluate the effect of planned teaching on physical restraints among nurses • To associate the knowledge with selected demographic variables Hypothesis Checklist • Does your hypothesis focus on something that you can actually test? • Does your hypothesis include both an independent and dependent variable? • Can you manipulate the variables? • Can your hypothesis be tested without violating ethical standards? Research objectives • While your problem formulation serves to describe the aim of your thesis, the objectives provide an accurate description of the specific actions you will take in order to reach this aim. As with the problem formulation, the overall objective should be framed in a single sentence. • Some examples of objectives market research: • Brand awareness, brand image, consumer perception, consumer attitudes, buyer behavior, product satisfaction, consumer experience (good and bad), and intent to purchase behavior. • Objectives should be tailored to each specific project. • There are three types of objectives in a marketing research project: -Exploratory or formulative research. -Descriptive research. -Causal research (explanatory research) • Characteristics of the research objectives: -Clear. Clarity is the main focus of the research objectives. ... -Complete. Each phrase in the research objectives should have a sense of completeness. ... -Specific. ... -Identify the main variables of the study. ... -Identify the direction of the relationship. The Role of Operational Definitions • In the previous example, study habits and test anxiety are the two variables in this imaginary study. A variable is a factor or element that can be changed and manipulated in ways that are observable and measurable. • However, the researcher must also define exactly what each variable is using what is known as operational definitions which explain how the variable will be manipulated and measured in the study. • In the previous example, a researcher might operationally define the variable "test anxiety" as the results of a self-report measure of anxiety experienced during an exam. The variable "study habits" might be defined by the amount of studying that actually occurs as measured by time. • These precise descriptions of each variable are important because many things can be measured in a number of different ways. • One of the basic principles of any type of scientific research is that the results must be replicable. • By clearly detailing the specifics of how the variables were measured and manipulated, other researchers can better understand the results and repeat the study if needed. • Some variables are more difficult than others to define. How would you operationally define a variable such as aggression? • For obvious ethical reasons, researchers cannot create a situation in which a person behaves aggressively toward others. • In order to measure this variable, the researcher must devise a measurement that assesses aggressive behavior without harming other people. • In this situation, the researcher might utilize a simulated task to measure aggressiveness. Examples • A hypothesis often follows a basic format of "If {this happens} then {this will happen}." One way to structure your hypothesis is to describe what will happen to the dependent variable if you make changes to the independent variable. The basic format might be: • "If {these changes are made to a certain independent variable}, then we will observe {a change in a specific dependent variable}." A few examples: • "Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who do not eat breakfast." • "Students who experience test anxiety prior to an English exam will get higher scores than students who do not experience test anxiety." • "Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely to make errors on a driving course than those who do not talk on the phone." • 1. Choosing the topic too broadly. This is the most common mistake. For example, a research title of “An analysis of leadership practices” can be classified as too broad because the title fails to answer the following questions: • a) Which aspects of leadership practices? Leadership has many aspects such as employee motivation, ethical behaviour, strategic planning, change management etc. An attempt to cover all of these aspects of organizational leadership within a single research will result in a poor work. • b) An analysis of leadership practices in which country? Leadership practices tend to be different in various countries due to cross-cultural differences, legislations and a range of other region-specific factors. Therefore, a study of leadership practices needs to be country-specific. • c) Analysis of leadership practices in which company or industry? Similar to the point above, analysis of leadership practices needs to take into account industry-specific and company-specific differences, and there is no way to conduct a leadership research that relates to all industries and organizations in an equal manner. • Accordingly, “A study into the impacts of ethical behaviour of a leader on the level of employee motivation in US healthcare sector” would be a more appropriate title than simply “An analysis of leadership practices”. • 2. Setting an unrealistic aim. Formulation of a research aim that involves in-depth interviews with Apple strategic level management by an undergraduate level student can be specified as a bit over-ambitious. This is because securing an interview with Apple CEO Tim Cook or members of Apple management board might not be easy. This is an extreme example, but you got the idea. Instead, you may aim to interview the manager of your local Apple store and adopt a more feasible strategy to get your dissertation completed. • • 3. Choosing research methods incompatible with the timeframe available. Conducting interviews with 20 sample group members and collecting primary data through 2 focus groups when only three months left until submission of your dissertation can be very difficult, if not impossible. Accordingly, timeframe available need to be taken into account when formulating research aims and objectives and selecting specific research methods. • Moreover, research objectives need to be formulated according to SMART objectives, where the abbreviation stands for specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and timely. • Ineffective (incomplete) research objectives vs SMART research objectives • Study employee motivation of Coca-Cola • To study the impacts of management practices on the levels of employee motivation at Coca-Cola US by December 5, 2018 • Analyze consumer behaviour in catering industry • Analyzing changes in consumer behaviour in catering industry in the 21st century in the UK by March 1, 2019 • Recommend Toyota Motor Corporation management on new market entry strategy • • Formulating recommendations to Toyota Motor Corporation management on the choice of appropriate strategy to enter Vietnam market by June 9, 2018 • Analyze the impact of social media marketing on business • Assessing impacts of integration of social media into marketing strategy on the level of brand awareness by March 30, 2017 • Finding out about time management principles used by Accenture managers • Identifying main time-management strategies used by managers of Accenture France by December 1, 2017 Difference Between Hypothesis and Research Question Hypothesis Research Question Definition: • Is a tentative prediction about the • Is the question a research study relationship between two or more variables. sets to answer. Nature • Predictive in nature. • Is inquisitive in nature. Existing Research • Can be used if there is significant knowledge • Can be used if there is little or previous research on this subject. previous research on the subject. Quantitative vs Qualitative • Mainly used in experimental quantitative • Can be used in both quantitative studies. and qualitative studies. Outcomes • Hypothesis doesn’t allow a wide range of • Allows a wide range of outcomes. outcomes. • Collecting Data on Your Hypothesis • Once a researcher has formed a testable hypothesis, the next step is to select a research design and start collecting data. The research method a researcher chooses depends largely on exactly what they are studying. There are two basic types of research methods— descriptive research and experimental research. • Descriptive Research Methods • Descriptive research such as case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys are often used when it would be impossible or difficult to conduct an experiment. These methods are best used to describe different aspects of a behavior or psychological phenomenon. Once a researcher has collected data using descriptive methods, a correlational study can then be used to look at how the variables are related. This type of research method might be used to investigate a hypothesis that is difficult to test experimentally. • Experimental Research Methods • Experimental methods are used to demonstrate causal relationships between variables. In an experiment, the researcher systematically manipulates a variable of interest (known as the independent variable) and measures the effect on another variable (known as the dependent variable). Unlike correlational studies, which can only be used to determine if there is a relationship between two variables, experimental methods can be used to determine the actual nature of the relationship. That is to say that if changes in one variable actually cause another to change. • A Word From Verywell • The hypothesis is a critical part of any scientific exploration. It represents what researchers expect to find in a study or experiment. In some cases, the original hypothesis will be supported and the researchers will find evidence supporting their expectations about the nature of the relationship between different variables. In other situations, the results of the study might fail to support the original hypothesis. • Even in situations where the hypothesis is unsupported by the research, this does not mean that the research is without value. Not only does such research help us better understand how different aspects of the natural world relate to one another, but it also helps us develop new hypotheses that can then be tested in future research. • The Scientific Method and Psychology Research • By Kendra Cherry • Updated November 15, 2018 • What Is the Scientific Method? • What is the scientific method and how is it used in psychology? The scientific method is essentially a step-by-step process that researchers can follow to determine if there is some type of relationships between two or more variables. • Psychologists and other social scientists regularly propose explanations for human behavior. On a more informal level, people make judgments about the intentions, motivations, and actions of others on a daily basis. • While the everyday judgments we make about human behavior are subjective and anecdotal, researchers use the scientific method to study psychology in an objective and systematic way. The results of these studies are often reported in popular media, which leads many to wonder just how or why researchers arrived at the conclusions they did. • In order to truly understand how psychologists and other researchers reach these conclusions, you need to know more about the research process that is used to study psychology and the basic steps that are utilized when conducting any type of psychological research. By knowing the steps of the scientific method, you can better understand the process researchers go through to arrive at conclusions about human behavior. • Reasons to Use the Steps of the Scientific Method • The goals of psychological studies are to describe, explain, predict and perhaps influence mental processes or behaviors. In order to do this, psychologists utilize the scientific method to conduct psychological research. The scientific method is a set of principles and procedures that are used by researchers to develop questions, collect data, and reach conclusions. • What are the goals of scientific research in psychology? Researchers seek not only to describe behaviors and explain why these behaviors occur; they also strive to create research that can be used to predict and even change human behavior. • The Steps of the Scientific Method • While research studies can vary, these are the basic steps that psychologists and scientists use when investigating human behavior. • Step 1. Make An Observation • Before a researcher can begin, they must choose a topic to study. Once an area of interest has been chosen, the researchers must then conduct a thorough review of the existing literature on the subject. This review will provide valuable information about what has already been learned about the topic and what questions remain to be answered. • A literature review might involve looking at a considerable amount of written material from both books and academic journals dating back decades. The relevant information collected by the researcher will be presented in the introduction section of the final published study results. This background material will also help the researcher with the first major step in conducting a psychology study — formulating a hypothesis. • Step 2. Ask A Question • Once a researcher has observed something and gained some background information on the topic, the next step is to ask a question. The researcher will form a hypothesis, which is an educated guess about the relationship between two or more variables • For example, a researcher might ask a question about the relationship between sleep and academic performance. Do students who get more sleep perform better on tests at school? • In order to formulate a good hypothesis, it is important to think about different questions you might have about a particular topic. You should also consider how you could investigate the causes. Falsifiability is an important part of any valid hypothesis. In other words, if a hypothesis was false, there needs to be a way for scientists to demonstrate that it is false • tep 3. Test Your Hypothesis and Collect Data • Once you have a solid hypothesis, the next step of the scientific method is to put this hunch to the test by collecting data. The exact methods used to investigate a hypothesis depend on exactly what is being studied. There are two basic forms of research that a psychologist might utilize – descriptive research or experimental research. • Descriptive research is typically used when it would be difficult or even impossible to manipulate the variables in question. Examples of descriptive research include case studies, naturalistic observation, and correlation studies. Phone surveys that are often used by marketers are one example of descriptive research. • Correlational studies are quite common in psychology research. While they do not allow researchers to determine cause-and-effect, they do make it possible to spot relationships between different variables and to measure the strength of those relationships. • Experimental research is used to explore cause-and-effect relationships between two or more variables. This type of research involves systematically manipulating an independent variable and then measuring the effect that it has on a defined dependent variable. One of the major advantages of this method is that it allows researchers to actually determine if changes in one variable actually cause changes in another. • While psychology experiments are often quite complex, a simple experimentis fairly basic but does allow researchers to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Most simple experiments use a control group (those who do not receive a treatment) and an experimental group(those who do receive the treatment). • Step 4. Examine the Results and Draw Conclusions • Once a researcher has designed the study and collected the data, it is time to examine this information and draw conclusions about what has been found. Using statistics, researchers can summarize the data, analyze the results, and draw conclusions based on this evidence. • So how does a researcher decide what the results of a study mean? Not only can statistical analysis support (or refute) the researcher’s hypothesis; it can also be used to determine if the findings are statistically significant. • When results are said to be statistically significant, it means that it is unlikely that these results are due to chance. • Based on these observations, researchers must then determine what the results mean. In some cases, an experiment will support a hypothesis, but in other cases, it will fail to support the hypothesis. • So what happens if the results of a psychology experiment do not support the researcher's hypothesis? Does this mean that the study was worthless? Just because the findings fail to support the hypothesis does not mean that the research is not useful or informative. In fact, such research plays an important role in helping scientists develop new questions and hypotheses to explore in the future. • After conclusions have been drawn, the next step is to share the results with the rest of the scientific community. This is an important part of the process because it contributes to the overall knowledge base and can help other scientists find new research avenues to explore. • • Step 5. Report the Results • The final step in a psychology study is to report the findings. This is often done by writing up a description of the study and publishing the article in an academic or professional journal. The results of psychological studies can be seen in peer- reviewed journals such as Psychological Bulletin, the Journal of Social Psychology, Developmental Psychology, and many others. • The structure of a journal article follows a specified format that has been outlined by the American Psychological Association (APA). In these articles, researchers: • Provide a brief history and background on previous research, • Present their hypothesis, • Identify who participated in the study and how they were selected, • Provide operational definitions for each variable, • Describe the measures and procedures that were used to collect data, • Explain how the information collected was analyzed, and • Discuss what the results mean. • Why is such a detailed record of a psychological study so important? By clearly explaining the steps and procedures used throughout the study, other researchers can then replicate the results. The editorial process employed by academic and professional journals ensures that each article that is submitted undergoes a thorough peer review, which helps ensure that the study is scientifically sound. • Once published, the study becomes another piece of the existing puzzle of our knowledge base on that topic. • How the Experimental Method Works in Psychology • By Kendra Cherry • Updated November 19, 2018 • How exactly do researchers investigate the human mind and behavior? While there are a number of different research techniques, the experimental method allows researchers to look at cause-and-effect relationships. • In the experimental method, researchers identify and define key variables, formulate a hypothesis, manipulate the variables and collect data on the results. Extraneous variables are carefully controlled to minimize a potential impact on the outcome of the experiment. • A Closer Look at the Experimental Method in Psychology • The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis. • Types of Experiments • There are a few different types of experiments that researchers might choose to use. The type of experiment chosen might depend on a variety of factors including the participants, the hypothesis and the resources available to the researchers. • 1. Lab Experiments • Lab experiments are very common in psychology because they allow experimenters more control over the variables. These experiments can also be easier for other researchers to replicate. The problem, of course, is that what takes place in a lab is not always identical to what takes place in the real world. • 2. Field Experiments • Sometimes researchers might opt to conduct their experiments in the field. For example, let's imagine that a social psychologist is interested in researching prosocial behavior. The experimenter might have a person pretend to faint and observe to see how long it takes onlookers to respond. This type of experiment can be a great way to see behavior in action in realistic settings. However, it makes it more difficult for the researchers to control the variables and can introduce confounding variables that might influence the results. • 3. Quasi-Experiments • While lab and field experiments represent what are known as true experiments, researchers can also utilize a third type known as a quasi-experiment. These are often referred to as natural experiments because the researchers do not have true control over the independent variable. Instead, the treatment level is determined by the natural conditions of the situation. A researcher looking at personality differences and birth order, for example, is not able to manipulate the independent variable in the situation. Treatment levels cannot be randomly assigned because the participants naturally fall into pre-existing groups based on their birth order in their families. • So why would a researcher choose to use a quasi-experiment? This is a good choice in situations where scientists and interested in studying phenomena in natural, real-world settings. It is also a good choice in situations where researchers cannot ethically manipulate the independent variable in question. • Key Terms to Know • In order to understand how the experimental method works, there are some key terms you should first understand. • The independent variable is the treatment that the experimenter manipulates. This variable is assumed to cause some type of effect on another variable. If a researcher was investigating how sleep influences test scores, the amount of sleep an individual gets would be the independent variable. • The dependent variable is the effect that the experimenter is measuring. In our previous example, the test scores would be the dependent variable. • Operational definitions are necessary in order to perform an experiment. When we say something is an independent variable or dependent variable, we need to have a very clear and specific definition of the meaning and scope of that variable. • A hypothesis is a tentative statement or guesses about the possible relationship between two or more variables. In our earlier example, the researcher might hypothesize that people who get more sleep will perform better on a math test the next day. The purpose of the experiment is then to either support or fail to support this hypothesis. • The Experimental Process • Psychologists, like other scientists, utilize the scientific method when conducting an experiment. The scientific method is a set of procedures and principles that guide how scientists develop research questions, collect data and come to conclusions. • The four basic steps of the process are: • Forming a Hypothesis • Designing a Study and Collecting Data • Analyzing the Data and Reaching Conclusions • Sharing the Findings • Most psychology students will be expected to use the experimental method at some point. If you want to take a closer look at the process, be sure to check out a step-by- step breakdown of how to conduct a psychology experiment for more information. • The Experimental Group in Psychology Experiments • By Kendra Cherry • Updated November 18, 2018 • In a psychology experiment, the experimental group (or experimental condition) refers to the group of participants who are exposed to the independent variable. These participants receive or are exposed to the treatment variable. The data that is collected is then compared to the data from the control group, which did not receive the experimental treatment. • By doing this, researchers are able to see if the independent variable had any impact on the behavior of the participants. Comparing the experimental group to the control group allows researchers to see how much of an impact the variables had on the participants. • A Closer Look at Experimental Groups • Imagine that you want to do an experiment to determine if listening to music while working out can lead to greater weight loss. After getting together a group of participants, you randomly assign them to one of three groups. One group listens to upbeat music while working out, one group listens to relaxing music, and the third group listens to no music at all. All of the participants work out for the same amount of time and the same number of days each week. • In this experiment, the group of participants listening to no music while working out is the control group. They serve as a baseline with which to compare the performance of the other two groups. The other two groups in the experiment are the experimental groups. They each receive some level of the independent variable, which in this case is listening to music while working out. • In this experiment, you find that the participants who listened to upbeat music experienced the greatest weight loss result, largely because those who listened to this type of music exercised with greater intensity than those in the other two groups. By comparing the results from your experimental groups with the results of the control group, you can more clearly see the impact of the independent variable. • Some Things to Know • When it comes to using experimental groups in a psychology experiment, there are a few important things to know: • In order to determine the impact of an independent variable, it is important to have at least two different treatment conditions. This usually involves using a control group that receives no treatment against an experimental group that receives the treatment. However, there can also be a number of different experimental groups in the same experiment. • Care must be taken when assigning participants to groups. So how do researchers determine who is in the control group and who is in the experimental group? In an ideal situation, the researchers would use random assignment to place participants in groups. In random assignment, each individual stands an equal shot at being assigned to either group. Participants might be randomly assigned using methods such as a coin flip or a number draw. By using random assignment, researchers can help ensure that the groups are not unfairly stacked with people who share characteristics that might unfairly skew the results. • Variables must be well-defined. Before you begin varying things in an experiment, you need to have very clear operational definitions in place. These definitions clearly explain what your variables are, including what you are varying and what you are measuring. • A Word From Verywell • Experiments play an important role in the research process and allow psychologists to investigate cause and effect relationships between different variables. Have one or more experimental groups allows researchers to vary different levels of an experimental variable (or variables) and then compare the effects of these changes against a control group. The goal of this experimental manipulation is to gain a better understanding of the different factors that may have an impact on how people think, feel, and act. Research hypothesis: H1 • Employees’ job satisfaction is positively related to their commitment to the organization • Leaders who communicate with respect have higher quality relationship with the employees • People who work in high-stress organization are more likely to think about quitting than those who were in low-stress organization Continuous Improvement Cycle Diagram PDCA is an iterative four-step management method used in business for the control and continuous improvement of processes and products. It is also known as the Deming circle/cycle/wheel, the Shewhart cycle, the control circle/cycle, or plan–do–study–act. Another version of this PDCA cycle is OPDCA. • Guides the research • Direct thought process towards the solution of the research problem • Helps to collect the right kinds of data needed for the investigation • To locate information needed to resolve the research problem. • Determine the most appropriate research design and technique of data analysis • Tells what to expect from the results of the research study. • Serves as a framework for drawing conclusions of a research study • Without hypothesis research would be aimless. What is a Research Question? • Question(s) a research study sets to answer. • The research methodologies, tools used to collect data, etc. all depend on the RQ. • RQs are often used in qualitative research to answer open-ended questions. • Can be used instead of hypotheses when there is little previous research on the subject. • RQ should be clear and concise. It should include the variables, population and the topic being studied. Research hypothesis Statement of expectation or prediction that will be tested by research Before formulating RH, read the topic of interest, collect sufficient information, narrow or limit it and express it as a RQ in one sentence Formulation of hypothesis: 1. Read the topic to familiarize, make certain that topic is researchable, sufficient published material is available 2. RH is more than just a topic. Has two elements – related to each other. Hypothesis – ‘thesis’ what you propose to ‘prove’ by research; conclusion, a theory useful or applicable beyond research itself. 3. Avoid judgemental words in hypothesis; try to be objective; avoid personal opinion 4. The issue or question that cannot be answered exclusively; you should have some level of familiarity with the discipline relevant to topic. How is a Hypothesis used in the Scientific Method? • A hypothesis represents what the researchers think will happen in an experiment. • The scientific method involves the following steps: 1. Forming a question 2. Performing background research 3. Creating a hypothesis 4. Designing an experiment 5. Collecting data 6. Analyzing the results 7. Drawing conclusions 8. Communicating the results • The hypothesis predict the relationship between two or more variables • Most of the time, the hypothesis begins with a question which is then explored through background research. • In a study exploring the effects of a particular drug, the hypothesis might be that researchers expect the drug to have some type of effect on the symptoms of a specific illness. • In psychology, the hypothesis might focus on how a certain aspect of the environment might influence a particular behavior. • Unless the study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen during the course of your research. • A hypothesis need not be correct. While the hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of the research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong. • When conducting an experiment, researchers might explore a number of factors to determine which ones might contribute to the ultimate outcome. • In many cases, researchers may find that the results of an experiment do not support the original hypothesis. When writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that should be explored in future studies. • Creating good objectives can help organizations realize their business goals. For example, a nonprofit community medical center needed to inform a communications campaign that will, in the end, expand their donor base and increase the consistency and dollar value of donations from existing donors. With these goals in mind, the presentation below explores three potential research objectives by demonstrating the following: • What the research must achieve • Example of a weak objective, and why’s it’s weak • Example of a stronger objective • While your problem formulation serves to describe the aim of your thesis, the objectives provide an accurate description of the specific actions you will take in order to reach this aim. As with the problem formulation, the overall objective should be framed in a single sentence. • Once again, take a look at the problem formulation: “Is the level of knowledge on recommended nutritional practices related to the nutritional status of pregnant women attending antenatal care in Northern Uganda?” • The corresponding overall objective should be written as an infinitive sentence e.g.: “To analyse the association between nutritional knowledge and the nutritional status of pregnant women attending antenatal care (ANC) in Northern Uganda. • The overall objective states exactly how you intend to address your problem: “I want to find the answer to problem A, by completing action B”. You then have to explain or detail action B through a set of specific objectives (usually two to four), e.g.: 1. To assess the knowledge level among ANC attendees on the recommended nutritional practices during pregnancy 2. To assess the nutritional status of pregnant women attending ANC 3. To analyse the statistical association between nutritional knowledge level and nutritional status in pregnant women attending ANC • Each specific objective consists of one infinitive sentence and should be phrased so that makes it possible to draw a conclusion from within the scope of the thesis. • The more precisely you formulate your specific objectives, the simpler it will be to define the type of study and which method(s) you will use in your further research. • You can refine your specific objective by clearly stating if your given action is to understand, analyse or create – in tune with the hierarchy of learning objectives and the key to the assessment of knowledge content.