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Gardner Ackley
Macroeconomic Theory
1961
How Classical is it?
Adam Smith Gardner Ackley
CLASSICAL ECONOMNICS
TEXTBOOK CLASSICISM
TEXTBOOK CLASSICISM
Refers to all economists up to but not including Keynes.
Takes a (mostly) short-run view.
Treats capital as parametric and doesn’t deal with growth.
Assumes that markets work “perfectly.”
Assumes away all problems of pervasive unemployment.
Allows for changes in the functional distribution of income.
Separates monetary issues from relative-price issues.
CLASSICAL ECONOMICS
Refers to the writings of Adam Smith through J. S. Mill.
Takes a long-run view.
Focuses on capital accumulation and economic growth.
Illuminates the nature of market forces.
Treats pervasive unemployment as a temporary problem.
Is concerned with the functional distribution of income.
Separates monetary issues from relative-price issues.
TEXTBOOK CLASSICISM
Refers to all economists up to but not including Keynes.
Gardner
Takes Ackley
a (mostly) was “aview.
short-run believer in the Government's
ability to manage the economy through fiscal and
Treats capital as parametric and doesn’t deal with growth.
monetary fine-tuning---a belief disputed by classical
Assumes that markets
economic work “perfectly.”
theorists….”
Assumes away all problems of pervasive unemployment.
From the NYT obituary, August 20, 1998
Allows for changes in the functional distribution of income.
Separates monetary issues from relative-price issues.
OUTPUT THE PRODUCTION FUNCTION
LABOR
INPUT
OUTPUT THE REAL ECONOMY
REAL
INCOME With supply and demand determining
the level of labor input, the production
function indicates the corresponding
level of output.
Note that when the demand curve is
extended to the horizontal axis (at
which point the demand price of labor
LABOR is zero), the marginal productivity of
INPUT
labor is also zero.
REAL
WAGE The output of the economy, which
RATE
S includes both consumer goods and
producer goods, is sold at
competitive prices, generating the
D revenue to pay the incomes of both
laborers and capitalists. Those
incomes, then, are precisely enough
LABOR to buy the economy’s output.
INPUT
OUTPUT THE REAL ECONOMY
Y/P = Q
REAL
INCOME Q = f(K, N)
K = K0
N
A LABOR-NEUTRAL INCREASE IN CAPTIAL
Y/P = Q K = K1
Consider an increase in the capital
input (K increases from K0 to K1)
K = K0 that does not change the MPL, as
indicated by the unchanged slope of
the production function.
Notice that the production function
now has a positive vertical intercept,
N which implies some automation. This
automation, however, works only to
W/P increase output and not to displace
labor or to employ more of it.
S
The unchanged MPL implies an
unshifted demand for labor.
D
But with a greater capital input, the
(Y/P)N economy’s real output and hence
real income rise.
N
AN INCREASE IN LABOR-USING CAPTIAL
Y/P = Q
K = K1
Consider an increase in capital of the
labor-using variety. The MPL (the
K = K0 slope) is greater at each and every
level of labor input.
At the margin, the complementarity
between labor and capital has been
strengthened, such that the level of
N labor input at which MPL = 0 has
increased.
W/P Accordingly, the demand for labor
S shifts rightward.
And with both the real wage rate and
the level of employment increasing,
D the income received by labor
(Y/P)N increases dramatically.
The economy’s output and real
N
income rise, but less dramatically.
A RESTRUCTURING WITH LABOR-SAVING CAPTIAL
Y/P = Q
Consider a restructuring of capital
with more of the labor-saving
K = K0 variety. The MPL is lessened at
K = K1
each and every level of labor input.
At the margin, the complementarity
between labor and capital has been
weakened, such that the level of
N labor input at which MPL = 0 has
decreased.
W/P Accordingly, the demand for labor
S shifts leftward.
And with both the real wage rate
and the level of employment
D decreasing, the income received by
(Y/P)
(Y/P)
N
labor decreases dramatically.
N
But the economy’s output and
N
hence real income rise.
CLASSICAL MONETARY THEORY Q
MV
PQ = MV
between the economy’s output and
the general level of prices.
The equation of exchange MV = PQ
can illuminate this relationship. If the
quantity of money (M) is given, and if P
the velocity of money (V) tends not to
A rectangle inscribed between
change, then the general level of
the axes and the equilateral
prices (P) and the economy’s output
hyperbola has an area of MV.
(Q) are inversely related.
With MV constant, all such
If the product of two variables (PQ) is
rectangles have the same area.
equal to a constant (MV), the
graphical rendition of the relationship Light up all the areas and it’s sort
is an equilateral hyperbola. of pretty.
THE CLASSICAL MODEL
Y/P = Q Q
K = K0
(MV)0
N P
P
THE CLASSICAL MODEL
Y/P = Q Q
K = K0
(MV)0
N P
N P
THE CLASSICAL MODEL
Y/P = Q Q
K = K0
(MV)0
N P
Y/P = Q Q
K = K0
(MV)0
RATE OF INTEREST
S
N P
Y/P = Q Q
K = K0
(MV)0
RATE OF INTEREST
S
N P
Y/P = Q Q
K = K0
(MV)0
N P
Y/P = Q Q
K = K0
(MV)0
N P
Y/P = Q Q
K = K0
(MV)0
N P
N
THE CLASSICAL MODEL
Y/P = Q Q
K = K0
(MV)0
N P
N P
THE CLASSICAL MODEL
Y/P = Q K = K1 Q
K = K0
(MV)0
(MV)0
N P
D
(Y/P)N
N
THE CLASSICAL MODEL
Y/P = Q Q
K = K1
K = K0
(MV)0
(MV)0
N P
(Y/P)N
D
(Y/P)N
N
THE CLASSICAL MODEL
Y/P = Q Q
K = K1
K = K0
(MV)0
(MV)0
N P
(Y/P)N
D wage rage.
(Y/P)N
N P
THE CLASSICAL MODEL
Y/P = Q Q
K = K1 K = K0
(MV)0
(MV)0
N P
D
(Y/P)
(Y/P)
N
N
N
THE CLASSICAL MODEL
Y/P = Q Q
K = K0
MV0 MV1
N P
N
THE CLASSICAL MODEL
Y/P = Q Q
K = K0
M0V M1V
RATE OF INTEREST
S
N P
Does it matter
Observe the real
thatand
themonetary
increase in
ω = W/P
consequences,
money supply (M)assuming
also caused
a given
the
S D velocity
rate of interest
of money,
to be
of lower
an increase
than it in
the moneywould
otherwise supplyhave
(M).been?
D
SAVIING (S) Can the allocation within the output
INVESTMENT (D) magnitude proceed without being
(Y/P)N distorted by a monetary expansion?
N
THE CLASSICAL MODEL
Y/P = Q Q
K = K0
M1V
RATE OF INTEREST
S
+ΔM
N P
Y/P = Q Q
K = K1
K = K0
M1V
M0V
N P
Now suppose
Does it matter the
thatcentral
the stabilization
bank is
ω = W/P
policy (the increase
committed to a policyinof
Mprice-level
to match
S the increase in Q) also caused the
stabilization.
rate of interest to be lower than it
How does this policy affect the real
otherwise would have been?
(Y/P)N
D and/or monetary consequences of
Canincrease
an the allocation
in capital
within
of the
thelabor-
output
(Y/P)N magnitude
using variety?
proceed without being
distorted by a policy-infected rate of
N
interest?
THE CLASSICAL MODEL
Y/P = Q Q
K = K0
M1V1
M0V0
N P
Suppose that the central bank blunders
ω = W/P mightily by allowing the money supply
to collapse. Fortunately, prices and
S wage rates, being sufficiently flexible
and not impeded by policymakers,
D adjust downward quickly and in direct
proportion to the shrinkage of the
(Y/P)N money supply.
Y/P = Q Q
K = K0
M1V1
M0V0
N P
Suppose that the central bank blunders
ω = W/P unemployment
mightily by allowing the money supply
to collapse. Confidence is shaken and
S the velocity of money falls, too. Then,
policy-makers step in and try to keep
(Y/P)N
N P
Any factory
Now suppose whose
that the
emissions
Federal
W/P
Reserve
result in air
attempts
less pure
to soften
than that
the
S act’s effect
found on output
in Laramie, by
Wyoming will
expanding
be subject to thea money
ceremonial
supply.
dismantling on Earth Day.
D
What are the consequences?
(Y/P)
(Y/P)NN
N
THE CLASSICAL MODEL
depicting
A KEYNESIAN-STYLE COLLAPSE
Y/P = Q Q
INTO DEPRESSION
N P