MMS - KTU - Module 1

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MODULE 1
Prepared by – Philip Jacob Perakathu, SCE
Atomic Structure
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 Fundamental concepts
 Atom – is the basic unit of a chemical structure.
 It consists of
 Nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons.
 Electrons.
Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

Cont…
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 Fundamental concepts (cont…)

 Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons in the nucleus.
 Atomic mass = Sum of masses of protons and neutrons
within the nucleus.
 Isotopes – Atoms of elements have different atomic
masses.
 Carbon (C) has 15 known isotopes, from 8C to 22C, 2 of
which (12C and 13C) are stable.

Cont…
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Cont…
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 Fundamental concepts (cont…)

 Atomic weight of an element corresponds to the
weighted average of the atomic masses of the atom’s
naturally occurring isotopes.
 Atomic mass unit (amu) – 1/12 the mass of Carbon12
 In one mole of a substance = 6.023 x 1023 atoms

(Avogadro’s number)
 For eg – One mole of Iron contains 6.023 x 1023 atoms
and has a mass of 55.84 g/mol or 55.84 amu/atom.

Cont…
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 Atomic models
 Bohr atomic model
 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in discrete orbitals.
 Each orbit or quantum state represents discrete level of
energy.
 Electrons are permitted to have only specific values of
energy.
 Electron may change energy, can jump to,
 Higher energy (absorption of energy)
 Lower energy (emission of energy)
 Electrons occupy discrete energy levels within the atom.
 Adjacent energy levels/states are separated by finite
energies. Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu
Cont…
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 Atomic models
 Wave mechanical model
 Electrons are not treated as a particle moving in a discrete
orbital
 Position is considered to be the probability of an electron
being at various location around the nucleus.

Cont…
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 Quantum Numbers
 Theenergy level to which each electrons belongs is
determined by four quantum numbers.
 Principal quantum number (n):
 Refers the quantum shell to which the electron belongs.
 The shell for n=1 is designated as K, for n=2 is L, for n=3 is M
and so on.
 Azimuthal quantum number (l):
 Signifies the subshell.
 It is related to the shape of the electron subshell
 Varies from 0 to (n-1)
 When n=2, l=(0,1).
 s for l=0, p for l=1, d for l=2, f for l=3
Cont…
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 Quantum Numbers (cont…)

 Magnetic quantum number (ml):
 Determines the number of energy levels, for each Azimuthal
number
 Ranges from –l to +l (Total number of 2l+1).
 Spin quantum number (ms):
 Pauli exclusion principle states that no more than two electrons,
with opposing electronic spins, may be present in each orbital.
 Depending upon the direction spin up and spin down with values
+1/2 and -1/2.

The number of available electron states in some of the shells and sub-shells
Number of electrons
Principal
Shell Number of
Quantum Sub-shells Per Sub-shell Per Shell
Designation states
number, n
1 K s 1 2 2
s 1 2
2 L 8
p 3 6
s 1 2
3 M p 3 6 18
d 5 10
s 1 2
p 3 6
4 N 32
d 5 10
f 7 14
10 Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu
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Cont…
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 Valence
 The valence of an atom is the number of electrons in an
atom that participate in bonding or chemical reaction.
 It is related to the ability of atom to enter into chemical
combination with other elements.
 E.g
 Mg: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
 Al: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
 Valence also depends on the immediate environment

surrounding the atom or the neighboring atoms
available for bonding.
Periodic Table
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 Elements are situated, with increasing atomic

number in periods (horizontal rows).
 Elements arranged in a given column have
 Similar valence electrons
 Similar chemical and physical properties.
 As a general rule, electronegativity increases in

moving from left to right.

Atomic Bonding
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 The process of holding the atoms together in a solid

material is known as bonding.
 Bonds in materials are classified as
 Primary or Chemical bonds
 Interatomic bond. Strong and more stable.
 Different types:
 Ionic bond, Covalent bond and Metallic bond.
 Secondary bonds or van der Waals or Physical bonds
 Found in most materials, but their effects are often
overshadowed by the strength of the primary bonding.
 Different types:
 Fluctuating induced dipole bond and Polar molecule-Induced
dipole bond.
Primary bonds
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 Ionic bond
 Found in compounds that are composed of metallic and
non-metallic elements.
 Atoms of a metallic element easily give up their valence
electrons (cations) to the non-metallic atoms (anions), to
acquire stable or inert gas configuration.
 For e.g. NaCl, Magnesia (MgO), Alumina (Al2O3),
Cement
 Non-directional i.e the magnitude of the bond is equal
in all direction.
 For the material to be stable, all the ions should
participate in forming the bond.
Cont…
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Cont…
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 Ionic bond (cont…)

 They generally have a high melting point, since tightly
held and tend to be soluble in water.
 Bad conductors of electricity in the solid state, because
the ions are not free to move.
 Thermally insulative.
 Rigid and hard.
 Crystalline in nature.
 Brittle.

Cont…
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 Ionic bond (cont…)

 Examples
 NaBr - Sodium Bromide
 KBr - Potassium Bromide
 NaCl - Sodium Chloride
 NaF - Sodium Fluoride
 KI - Potassium Iodide
 KCl - Potassium Chloride

Cont…
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 Covalent bond
 Also known as Molecular bonding
 Elements from the central group from the periodic table
are not readily reduced to closed shell electronic
configuration.
 When atoms are held together by sharing the electrons
in the outer shell to achieve stable electron
configuration, the bonding is said to be covalent
bonding.
 The shared electron(s) considered to belong to both
atoms.

Cont…
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Cont…
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 Covalent bond (cont…)

 For e.g. H2, Cl2, O2, H2O, CH4 etc
 Strong and hard.
 Non-crystalline.
 Exists as solids, liquids and gases.
 Very high elastic modulus.
 High strength.
 High melting point.
 Low electrical conductivity.

Cont…
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 Covalent bond (cont…)

 Examples
 Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids
 PCl3
 O3 – Ozone
 H2 – Hydrogen
 H2O – Water
 CH4 – Methane
 NH3 – Ammonia
 CO2 – Carbon dioxide

Cont…
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 Metallic bond
 Type of bonding found in metals and alloys.
 Metallic materials have one, two or at the most three
valence electrons.
 These electrons detach themselves from their nuclei.
 These ‘free electrons’ are called electron cloud/sea of
electrons.
 The positive ions are called ion cores.
 Electrostatic attraction between these two forms a bond,
called the metallic bond.
 The electron cloud act as a shield for the ion cores
against repulsive electrostatic force.
Cont…
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Cont…
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 Metallic bond (cont…)

 Opaque.
 Bright luster.
 Non-directional.
 Good conductors.
 Crystalline in nature.
 Exist in solid state only.
 High elastic modulus.
 High strength.
 Good ductility.
 Examples - All metals and alloys like Cu, Al, Au, Ag etc
Secondary bonds
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 Fluctuating induced Dipole Bonds

 Also known as dispersion bonds/ London forces.
 A dipole may be created or induced in an
atom/molecule that is normally electrically symmetric.
 Constant vibrational motion can cause instantaneous
and short-lived dipole in an atom/molecule.
 These dipoles can produce another dipole from the
adjacent atom/molecule.
 These dipoles is then weakly attracted or bonded.

Cont…
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 Polar molecule-Induced dipole bond

 Also known as Permanent dipole bond.
 These dipoles can produce another dipole from the
adjacent atom/molecule.
 These dipoles is then attracted or bonded.
 Directional in nature.
 Much stronger than the fluctuating induced dipole bond.

Cont…
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 Hydrogen bonding / hydrogen bridge

 Special case of polar molecular bonding.
 Occurs between molecules in which hydrogen is
covalently bonded to another element.
 Single hydrogen electron is shared with other atom,
which makes the hydrogen atom a positively charged
proton.
 This hydrogen attracts the negative end of the adjacent
molecule.
 Directional.
 Stronger than other secondary bonds.
 Melting and boiling temperatures are high.
Cont…
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Bonding Forces and Energies
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 FN = FA + FR
(Net force = Attractive force + Repulsive force)
 FA + FR = 0 (at equilibrium)
 E = ∫ F dr
 EN = ∫r∞ FA dr + ∫r∞ FR dr (for atomic systems)
= EA + ER i.e. (-A/r + B/rn)
 r0 – Bond length
 E0 – Bond energy

Cont…
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 When bond length increases,

 Increase in atomic radius
 Increase in inter-atomic distance
 Strength decreases
 Lowers the values of modulus of elasticity.
 High binding energy:

 High melting point.
 High boiling point.
 High modulus of elasticity.
 High yield strength.
 Low thermal expansion.
Cont…
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 The magnitude of bonding energy and shape of the

potential energy curve varies from material to material.
 A deep and narrow trough in the curve indicates large
bond energy, high melting temperature, large elastic
modulus and small coefficient of thermal expansion.
 Generally substances with large bonding energy are
solids, intermediate energies are liquids and small
energies are gases.
 The width and asymmetry of the well in the potential
energy curve represents varying properties of different
materials
Atomic Arrangement
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 Crystalline
 Periodic arrangement of atoms.
 Definite repetitive pattern.
 Short and Long range order.
 For e.g. Metals and alloys etc
 Non-crystalline/Amorphous
 Random arrangement of atoms.
 Short range order.
 For e.g. Plastics, Glasses

Cont…
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Cont…
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 Liquid Crystals
 Short and Long range order in small volumes
 Liquid crystals polymers behave like
 Amorphous in liquid state
 Crystalline, when an external stimuli is provided.
 For e.g. LCD polymers

 Monoatomic gases
 No order
 For e.g. Argon gas

Cont…
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Amorphous Solids Crystalline Solids

 There is only a short range order in  There is a long range order in crystals.
amorphous solids
 Amorphous solids do not have a sharp  Melt at a sharp temperature.
melting point; they are softened in a
range of temperature
 Amorphous solids undergo irregular or  Crystalline solids can be cleaved along
conchoidal breakage definite planes.
 Amorphous solids are isotrophic – the  Crystalline solids, in general are
properties will be independent of the anisotrophic – their properties such as
direction in which they are measured. electrical conductivity, refractive index,
thermal expansion etc. will be different
directions.
 Less rigid.  More rigid.
 Examples of Amorphous solids: Fibre  Examples of Crystalline : Copper,
glass, Cellophane, Teflon, Polyurethane, Potassium nitrate, Benzoic acid etc
Napthalene, Polyvinyl chloride
Cont…
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 Space Lattice/Crystal Lattice –

A three dimensional array of points (collection of points
– lattice points), each of which has identical
surroundings.
 The space lattice points in a crystal are occupied by
atoms.
 Unit cell:
 Subdivision of lattice.
 The basic structural unit or building block of the crystal
structure and defines the crystal structure by virtue of
its geometry and the atom positions within.
Cont…
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 Basis
 Arrangement of atoms within a unit cell.
 Atomic Hard Sphere Model is considered.
 Crystal structure = Lattice + Basis

Cont…
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 Lattice Parameters
 Length
 Denoted as a, b and c
 Describes the dimensions of a unit cell.
 Expressed in (nm) or (Å).
 Orientation
 The angles between the lengths
 Denoted as α, β and ɣ.
 Based on their length equality or inequality and their

orientation, a total of 7 crystal systems can be defined.
 With the centering (face, base, body and end
centering) added to these, 14 kinds of 3D lattices,
known as Bravais lattices, can be generated.
Cont…
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 Number of Atoms per Unit cell (n)

n = (Nc/8) + (Nf/2) + Nb
 Co-ordination number
 Number of nearest atoms directly surrounding a
particular atom.
 Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
 Thefraction of space occupied by atoms.
 APF = (number of atoms/cell)(volume of each atom)
(volume of unit cell)
 Theoretical Density of a material
ρ = (number of atoms/cell)(atomic mass)
(volume of unit cell)(Avogadro’s number)
Metallic Crystal Structures
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 The atomic bonding in this group of materials is

metallic, and thus non-directional in nature.
 For metals, using the hard sphere model for the
crystal structure, each sphere represents an ion core.
 Four relatively simple crystal structures are found
for most of the common metals:
 SimpleCubic (SC),
 Face-Centered Cubic (FCC),
 Body-Centered Cubic (BCC), and
 Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP).

Cont…
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 Simple Cubic (SC)

 Eight lattice points at its corner.
 Lattice Parameters
a = b= c
 Angles
α= β = ɣ = 90°
 Number of atoms per unit cell
n =1
 Co-ordination number
6
 Atomic Packing Factor
 APF = 0.52 Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu
Cont…
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 Face-Centered Cubic (FCC)

 Examples of metals having this crystal structure are copper,
aluminum, silver, and gold.
 a = b= c
 Angles
 α = β = ɣ = 90°
 n=4
 12
 APF = 0.74 Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu
Cont…
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 Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)

 Another common metallic crystal structure also has a cubic
unit cell with atoms located at all eight corners and a single
atom at the cube center.
 a = b= c
 Angles
 α = β = ɣ = 90°
 n=2
 8
 APF = 0.68
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Cont…
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 Hexagonal Close-Packed
 The top and bottom faces of the unit cell consist of six atoms that
form regular hexagons and surround a single atom in the center.
Another plane that provides three additional atoms to the unit cell
is situated between the top and bottom planes.
 a = b≠ c (a and c – short and long unit cell dimension)
 Angles
 α = β = 90°, ɣ = 120°
 n=6
 12
 APF = 0.74
Atoms Co-ordination
Structure a versus r APF Examples
per cell number
Simple Cubic (SC) 2r 1 6 0.52 Polonium, α-Mn
Face-Centered Cubic Fe, Cu, Pt, Ag, Pb, Ni

2√2r 4 12 0.74
(FCC) etc
Body-Centered Cubic Fe, Ti, Na, Cr, Zr, Ta

4r/√3 2 8 0.68
(BCC) etc
2r
Hexagonal Close-
6 12 0.74 Ti, Mg, Zn, Co etc
Packed (HCP)
c = 1.633a

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Crystal
Unit cell Volume of a unit cell Bravais Lattice Examples
System
Simple Cubic Po, Mn
a = b= c
Cubic a3 Body-Centered Cubic α-Fe, Li, Na etc
α = β = ɣ = 90°
Face-Centered Cubic ɣ-Fe, Cu, Al, Ag
Protactinium (Pa) , Indium
a = b≠ c Simple Tetragonal
Tetragonal a2 c (In)
α = β = ɣ = 90°
Body-Centered Tetragonal β-Sn
Simple Orthorhombic Iodine, U, P, Sb
Orthorhombic End-Centered Orthorhombic KNO3

a≠b≠c
/ abc Body-Centered
α = β = ɣ = 90° NaNO3
Orthogonal Orthorhombic
Face-Centered
Ga, α-S
Orthorhombic
a≠b≠c Simple Monoclinic FeSO4
Monoclinic abc sinβ
α = β = 90° ≠ ɣ End-Centered Monoclinic β-S
Trigonal / a = b= c
a3√(1-cos2α + 2cos3α) Simple Rhombohedral Bi, SiO2
Rhombohedral α = β = ɣ ≠ 90°
a = b≠ c
Hexogonal α = β = 90°, ɣ = 0.866a2c Simple Hexogonal Zn, Mg, La, Cd etc
120°
a ≠ b≠ c abc√(1-cos2α-cos2β-cos2ɣ+2 cosα cosβ

Triclinic Simple Triclinic K, CuSO4
62 α ≠ β ≠ ɣ ≠ 90° cosɣ)

Cont…
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 Solve:
 Copper has FCC crystal structure. Determine its density
if the atomic weight is 63.54 and atomic radius is 1.27
Å.
 Calculate the number of atoms per unit cell of a metal
having lattice parameter 2.88 Å and a density of 7.87
gm/cm3. Atomic weight = 55.85
 A metal having cubic structure has a density of 2.6
gm/cm3, atomic weight = 87.62 gm/mol and a lattice
parameter of 6.0849 Å. One atom is associated with
each lattice point. Determine the crystal structure.
Polymorphism and Allotropy
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 Some materials may exist in more than one crystal

structure.
 The term ‘allotropy’ is normally reserved for this
behavior in pure elements, while the term
‘polymorphism’ is used for compounds.
 For eg
 Iron – BCC at low temperatures and FCC at higher
temperatures.
 Zirconia (ZrO2) – Monoclinic at room temperature and
Cubic form at higher temperature.
Miller Indices
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 It is often necessary to be able to specify certain

directions and planes in crystals.
 Many material properties and processes vary with
direction in the crystal.
 A set of 3 integers/indices known as Miller Indices are
the short hand notation used to describe the
crystallographic directions and planes.
 These directions and planes could be in lattices or in
crystals.
 The number of indices will match with the dimension of
the lattice or the crystal.
 E.g. in 1D there will be 1 index and 2D there will be
two indices etc.
Cont…
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 h,k,l or (h,k,l) represents a point

 Negative numbers/directions are denoted with a
bar on top of the number
 [ h k l ] - represents a direction
 < h k l > - represents a family of directions
 ( h k l ) - represents a plane
 { h k l } - represents a family of planes

Cont…
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 Procedure for finding Miller Indices of Directions

 Determine the co-ordinates of two points that lie on the
direction, using a right handed co-ordinate system.
 Subtract the co-ordinates of tail point from those of the
head point and express the same in terms of the unit
cell dimensions.
 Multiply/divide these numbers by a common factor to
reduce them to the smallest integers.
 The 3 indices are enclosed in square brackets as [u v w]
 Negative integers are denoted with a bar on top of the

number. Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu
(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Cont…
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 Procedure for finding Miller Indices of Planes

 Ifthe plane passes through the origin of co-ordinate
system, the origin must be moved to another corner of
unit cell.
 Identify the points at which the plane intercepts the x, y
and z axes and express the intercepts in terms of the
lattice parameters.
 Take reciprocals of these numbers. Intercept for a plane
parallel to an axis to be taken as infinity with the
reciprocal equal to zero.
 Change these numbers to a set of smallest integers by
multiplication/division by a common factor.
 Enclose the integers indices within parentheses as (hkl).
Cont…
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 h,k,l or (h,k,l) represents a point

 Negative numbers/directions are denoted with a
bar on top of the number
 [ h k l ] - represents a direction
 < h k l > - represents a family of directions
 ( h k l ) - represents a plane
 { h k l } - represents a family of planes

Cont…
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 It is important to know to identify directions and

planes of atoms
 Deformation under loading (slip) occurs on certain
crystalline planes and in certain crystallographic
directions.
 Other properties of materials (electrical conductivity,
thermal conductivity, elastic modulus) can vary in a
crystal with orientation.

Cont…
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 Relationship between direction and planes

 In the cubic system planes and directions having same
indices are perpendicular to each other i.e. if [uvw]
direction is perpendicular to (hkl) plane then h = u, k =
v and l = w. Ex: {100} planes and <100> directions
are perpendicular to each other.
 If [uvw] direction is parallel to (hkl), that is if [uvw] lies
in the plane (hkl) then hu + kv + lw = 0. For example, [
Ï 1 0 ] lies in the plane (111) since 1.(-1) + 1.1 + 1.0 =
0.

Cont…
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 Miller-Bravais Indices for Hexagonal Unit Cells

 Planes and direction contains four digits instead of
three.
 Planes
 (hkil), where i = -(h+k)
 Direction
 [HKIL], where
 H = (1/3)(2h-k)
 K = (1/3)(2k-h)
 I = -(1/3)(h+k)
 L=l
Linear Density and Planar Density
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 Directional equivalency is related to linear density in

the sense that, for a particular material, equivalent
directions have identical linear densities.
 The corresponding parameter for crystallographic
planes is planar density, and planes having the same
planar density values are also equivalent.

Cont…
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 Linear density (LD)

 The number of atoms per unit length whose centers lie
on the direction vector for a specific crystallographic
direction.
 Units – nm-1, m-1
LD = (number of atoms centered on direction

vector)/(length of direction vector)
E.g -
LD110 = 2 atoms / 4R
= 1 / 2R
Cont…
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 Planar density (PD)

 The number of atoms per unit area that are centered
on a particular crystallographic plane.
 Units – nm-2, m-2
PD = (number of atoms centered on plane)/(area of

plane)
E.g -
PD110 = 2 atoms / ((4R) (2R√2))
= 2 atoms / 8R2√2

Cont…
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 Anisotropic behavior
 The physical properties of single crystals of some
substances depend on the crystallographic direction in
which measurements are taken.
 For example, the elastic modulus, electrical conductivity,
and the index of refraction may have different values
in the [100] and [111] directions.
 The directionality of the properties is termed anisotropy
and is associated with the atomic spacing.

Cont…
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 Isotropic behavior
 Ifmeasured properties are independent of the
direction of measurement then they are isotropic.
 For many polycrystalline materials, the crystallographic
orientations of the individual grains are totally random.
 So, though, a specific grain may be anisotropic, when
the specimen is composed of many grains, the
aggregate behavior may be isotropic.

Cont…
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Modulus of elasticity - GPa

Metal
[100] [110] [111]
Aluminum 63.7 72.6 76.1
Copper 66.7 130.3 191.1
Iron 125.0 210.5 272.7
Tungsten 384.6 384.6 384.6

Cont…
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 Anelastic behavior
 When a material undergoes elastic deformation, the
elastic strain disappears as the load is removed.
 In some materials, depending upon metal and
temperature, the plastic strain will disappear with time.
 This time dependent elastic behavior is called anelastic.
 Viscoelastic behavior
 Property of material that exhibit both viscous and
elastic characteristics when undergoing deformation.
 Such materials have elements of both of these
properties and exhibit time dependent strain.
Close-packed crystal structure
85

Deformation of Metals
88
 When a material is subjected to an external

force/load, the material suffers a change in shape,
which is called deformation.
 If the deformation is temporary (disappears on removal
of the load) – elastic deformation.
 If the deformation is permanent (persists on removal of
the load) – plastic deformation.

Cont…
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Cont…
90
 Elastic deformation
 The displacement of atoms is by relatively small amounts, the
removal of the applied load allows the atoms to return to their
normal equilibrium position.
 Elastic deformation is reversible.
 Plastic deformation
 Yielding involves the possibility that some of the atoms, under
distortion produced by the applied load, move to a new
equilibrium position.
 New bonds are formed in the new positions, so no tendency for
atoms to return to their original positions.
 Deformation is permanent.
 There are two common mechanism of plastic deformation
 Slip
 Twinning. Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu
Cont…
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Cont…
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Cont…
93
 Types of loads
 Tensile loads
 Forcesapplied normal to the sample surface
 Elongation –positive linear strain

Cont…
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 Types of loads (cont…)

 Compressive loads
 Forcesapplied normal to the sample surface
 Elongation – negative linear strain

Cont…
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 Pure shear load
 Theshear angle θ
 Applied force is parallel to the both sample faces

Cont…
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 Torsional deformation
 Twist angle, φ
 Torsion is a variation of pure shear
 Torsion load produces a rotational motion (twist) around axis
of symmetry

Cont…
97
 Slip
 Slip occurs most readily in specific directions on certain
crystallographic planes.
 The plane on which slip occurs is known as slip plane and the
direction in which slip takes place is known as slip direction.
 The combination of slip plane and slip direction is known as
slip system.
 Generally slip plane is the plane of greatest atomic density
and the slip direction is the closed packed direction within
the slip plane.
 Slip occurs on the most densely packed crystallographic
planes and, in those planes, along directions having the
greatest atomic packing.

Cont…
98
Crystal Slip plane Slip direction

structure
SC {100} <100>
BCC {110} <111>
FCC {111} <110>
HCP {0001} <1120>

Cont…
99

Cont…
100

Cont…
101

Cont…
102

Cont…
103
 Schmid’s Law
 Schmid's law defines the relationship between shear
stress, the applied stress, and the orientation of the slip
system.
 It is an equation for finding the stress in the slip plane
given an axial force and the angle of the slip plane.
 Schmid's law can help to explain the differences in
behavior of different metals when subjected to a
unidirectional force.

Cont…
105

Cont…
106
 Twinning
 In certain metals when shear stress is applied, planes of
atoms in the lattice move parallel to a specific plane so that
the lattice is divided into two symmetrical parts which are
differently oriented.
 This phenomenon is known as twinning and the planes
parallel to which atomic movement has taken place are know
as twinning planes
 The differently oriented region within the crystal and
between the twinning planes is know as twinned region.
 The amount of movement of each plane of atoms in the
twinned region is proportional to its distance from the
twinning plane, so that the mirror image is formed across the
twin plane. Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu
Cont…
107

Cont…
108

Cont…
109
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/superelasticity/twinning.php

Cont…
110

Cont…
111
SLIP TWINNING
Atoms move a whole number of inter Atoms movement is fractional amounts.
atomic distance.
Appears thin lines Broad lines or bands
Little change is lattice orientation Different lattice orientation in the twinned

region
Steps are visible on surface Polishing will not destroy the evidence of
twining-due to difference in lattice
Steps can be removed by polishing-no orientation
evidence of slip

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1

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

 Fundamental concepts (cont…)

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

 Fundamental concepts (cont…)

 In one mole of a substance = 6.023 x 1023 atoms

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

 Quantum Numbers (cont…)

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

 Valence also depends on the immediate environment

 Elements are situated, with increasing atomic

 As a general rule, electronegativity increases in

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

 The process of holding the atoms together in a solid

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

 Ionic bond (cont…)

 Rigid and hard.

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

 Ionic bond (cont…)

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

 Covalent bond (cont…)

 Exists as solids, liquids and gases.

 Very high elastic modulus.

 High melting point.

 Low electrical conductivity.

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

 Covalent bond (cont…)

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

 Metallic bond (cont…)

 Exist in solid state only.

 High elastic modulus.

 Fluctuating induced Dipole Bonds

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

 Polar molecule-Induced dipole bond

 Much stronger than the fluctuating induced dipole bond.

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

 Hydrogen bonding / hydrogen bridge

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

 When bond length increases,

 High binding energy:

 The magnitude of bonding energy and shape of the

 Short and Long range order.

 For e.g. Metals and alloys etc

 For e.g. Plastics, Glasses

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

 For e.g. LCD polymers

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

Amorphous Solids Crystalline Solids

 Space Lattice/Crystal Lattice –

Prepared by - Philip Jacob Perakathu

 Based on their length equality or inequality and their

 Number of Atoms per Unit cell (n)

 The atomic bonding in this group of materials is

 Body-Centered Cubic (BCC), and

 Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP).

 Simple Cubic (SC)

 Face-Centered Cubic (FCC)