Dravida Architecture: Features

• A general south Indian or Dravida type temple commonly called Vimana

(boat or ship) type is marked by six major body parts or angas.
1. The Adhishthana: the base or platform (pedestal) on which the whole
superstructure rests.
2. The Pada: walls (bhitti) with pillars (stambhas) in between them make and
enclose the cella or room, the garbhagriha, in which the main of presiding
deity is placed.
3. The Prastara: the architrave, i.e., the horizontal beam which marks the end
of the cella/ garbhagriha walls and the beginning of the spire of shikhara
on which is constructed the sun-shade or cornice, i.e., eave called kapota
since on this projection birds are seen sitting and resting in rows.
4. The Griva : the neck or clerestory, i.e., the upper row of windows or the
recessed part of the beginning of the spire or shikhara.
5. The Shikhara: the spire or pyramidal roof covering the top of the griva.
6. The Stupi: the finial in the form of a small stupa or bulbous pot, a kalasha
crowning the top of the shikhara.
 Dravida Architecture: Features
• The temples can be ekatala or single storeyed or bahutala or multi-
storeyed, each succeeding storey diminishing in dimensions, making
the whole structure pointed or pyramidal.
• Each storey or tala consists of two major parts:
1. Harmaya or body
2. Prastara or architrave
• In the south Indian shilpa texts we get the mention of as many as
sixteen storeyed vimanas.
• Each rising storey is called jati vimana.
• The bottom one or the first tala is called mukhya vimana.
Dravida Architecture: Features
Dravida Architecture: Features
 Dravida Architecture: The Layout
• Walled compound accessed through large gateways. Unique to the South
Indian style, temple compounds are typically encircled by high walls
(prakara) with entrances through large gateways, called gopurams; these
gateways are so massive that they sometimes dwarf the enclosed temples.
They symbolize the break between the temporal world outside and the
sacred eternal precinct of the gods inside.
• Multiple stairway entrance. There are often three stairways that afford
entrance into the temple from the east, north, and south sides of the
ardhamandapa.
• Core structures remain the same. The progression of rooms follows the
same pattern as in the North: the ardhamandapa- the mandapa -the
garbhagriha. However, unlike the Northern style, there are no balconies or
cruciform interiors.
• Vast hypostyle halls. Later in the Southern style’s development, the
temple’s mandapas were expanded in size and filled with as many as one
thousand pillars. This architectural practice was driven by increasingly
elaborate temple ritual.
Dravida Architecture: The Layout
Temple Walls

Mandapa Ardha Mandapa

Gopuram
 Dravida Architecture: The Decorative Elements

• The first thing that attracts the attention is the decoration of

the flat portion just above the prastara, i.e., the horizontal
beam, the parapet wall, at each storey.
• Since it runs around the entire parapet wall in a garland or
string like manner, it is called hara.
• It contains miniature vimana-like shrines. However in later
temples, from around eleventh century, the hara of the
topmost tala or storey is replaced by the lanchanas or
vahanas or mount of the god to whom the temple was
dedicated, for example, if it was a Shiva temple, the bull or
even bhuta images were made and placed in a row, and if it
was a Vishnu temple it could be garuda or eagle.
 The Decorative Elements: Kuta Vimana

• Many a time one sees the top

portion of the vimana of a
south Indian temple in the
rounded bulbous form, like a
dome, plain or faceted and
decorated in a variety of
designs.
• It is surmounted by a single
finial, the stupi. This is called Kuta Vimana
the kuta vimana with kuta
shikhara; the term kuta stands
for domed shrine.
• Where the shikhara is not
domed, the four corners are
decorated with kuta or domed
shrines with square plan.
 The Decorative Elements: Shala Vimana
• There is yet an absolutely different kind of roof in a
south Indian temple and shrines.
• It is called shala type. Here there is absolutely no
pyramidal shikhara.
• The roof is like an oblong wagon-top, or vault.
• It resembles a boat placed upside down leading to
a double-sided roof with a central ridge over a
rectangular house.
• Along the central ridge of the longer axis we find a Shala Vimana
series of stupis or finials placed at regular intervals
to decorate it.
• It is sometimes called shala vimana and sometimes
koshtha, or even sabha vimana, meaning oe and
the same, rectangular house; koshtha means room
and sabha means a large rectangular hall in which
meetings take place.
• A slightly modified form of this double-sided shala
type roof is the gaja or hasti-prishtha type roof-
here the hind part of the barrel-shaped roof is
rounded, hence resembles the back of an elephant.
• For this category of shikharas the texts use the
terms panjara and nidas also, the former is more
commonly used.
 The Decorative Elements: Panjara Vimana

• It is significant to note that the hara

or parapet wall decoration of every
tala or storey consists of a row of Panjara Vimana
diminutive forms of these three types
of shrine forms: kuta (domical), shala
(barrel-shaped) and panjara (elephant
back).
• At the four corners of the hara we get
large kutas or domes, called karna-
kutas, karna means corner.
• The hara, i.e., the garland of
miniature shrines, has naturally
interspaces also amongst all the
shrine models; these vacant spaces
are called harantara, antara means
space.
 The Decorative Elements: Bhitti
• The outer face of the walls or bhitti
of the temples are broken by
vertical offsets of projections
marked by pilasters, or half pillars,
at regular intervals.
• These are called bhadra. This is
true of the north Indian Nagara
style temples also where these
offsets are called ratha.
• Some of these bhadras alternate Bhitti (Wall)
with sunken spaces which are like
large vertical niches called
koshthas, or else devakoshthas,
particularly in which we find
images of gods and goddesses
carved boldly.
 The Decorative Elements: Pillars
• The pillars as well as pilasters of
south Indian temples are
beautifully decorated.
• The base or pedestal of the pillar,
called om, is often given the form
of a squatting mythical creature
with the body of one animal and
other part of some other
creatures.
• These are called vyalas, or else a
grotesque human figure called Stambhas
bhuta or else elephant, serpent, (Pillars)
lion, etc.
• The shaft above it, i.e., the middle
portion, could be round square or
multi-faceted.
 Early Western Chalukyas
• A distinctive style of temple architecture emerged in the Deccan
during sixth to eighth century CE. This style flourished chiefly in its
formative centres- Aihole, Badami, Mahakuteshvara and Pattadakal.
• The locally available stone was used for these temples.
• The earliest and the simplest temples the so called mandapa type
temples are found at Aihole consisting a simple cella in an open
construction-a sort of verandah.
• Gradually this developed into the mature prasada and vimana forms
of temple, having a mukha mandapa, a closed sabha mandapa, an
antarala (antechamber) and a pradakshinapatha.
• Here are seen both types of shikharas i.e., pyramidal and curvilinear.
 Early Western Chalukyas
• The Kontigudi group of temples and the Lad Khan are usually
regarded as the simplest type of temples in Aihole.
• The Kontigudi group, however appears to be more primitive. Of the
three temples in this group, one faces east and the other west.
• They stand one in front of the other, while the third one stands near the
one facing east.
• The temple facing east has an oblong plan, with the entrance in the
centre of a long open verandah. This enclosed side at the east has six
pillars, while solid walls encompass the other three sides. Eight more
pillars stand on a platform in the centre of the building.
• The garbhagriha adjoins the rear wall on the west.
• A flat roofed porch with four pillars unites the temple with the one
before it.
 Early Western Chalukyas
• The second temple facing west has another verandah in front.
• The temple is square in plan. The garbhagriha too abuts the rear wall.
• The square, platform-like structure on the top of the sabha mandapa is
a novel feature.
• The third temple, adjacent to the one facing east and resembling it
with its oblong plan and the six pillars in front of the verandah, seems
to be the latest of the group.
• Here we see for the first time a kind of screen formed by connecting
the four front pillars of the eight pillars in the centre by means by a
latticed wall.
• This may be the first step towards enclosing the garbhagriha.
• Here the garbhagriha is still attached to the rear wall of the temple.
 Early Western Chalukyas: Lad Khan Temple
• The Lad Khan is a large mandapa-type temple at Aihole.
• It stands on a moulded adishthana.
• Sixteen pillars, arranged into two squares -one inside and other-support the roof forming a double
aisle around the central Nandi shrine.
• The pillars of the third concentric square forming the outer periphery of the temple have been
transformed into pilasters by closing the inter-columnar space with wall screens, each consisting
of a single massive slab set on edge, except at the entrance on the middle of the eastern side.
• the three slabs in the middle of the southern and northern sides were perforated to serve as the
windows providing light and air.
• The western wall, adjoining the garbhagriha, was left blank.
• The roofing consists a large flat sloping slabs arranged in two tiers.
• Long narrow stone strips covering their entire length protects the joints of these slabs.
• On the roof of the Lad Khan, just above the middle of the hall, stands another small shrine with
images sculpted on the outer walls.
• The temple faces west. The shikhara appears to be an embryonic form of shikhara.
• A stone ladder attached to the porch gives access to this rooftop shrine.
 Lad Khan Temple
• The mukha mandapa (porch), rectangular in form, stands in front of the
sabha mandapa on the same moulded adhishthana.
• Twelve pillars, in four rows (three each) supports the roof.
• The pillars bear the sculptures of Ganga (with two dwarfs and flying
figures) and Yamuna (on tortoise).
• Kakshasanas made their first appearance here serving both as seats and low
ornamental outer walls between the pillars, with outward sloping backs and
fence like vedi underneath decorated with dwarf pilaster and ornamental
sculpture including the purana-kalasha.
• The shafts of the pillars are plain and the capitals bracketed. On the exterior
angles of the sabha mandapa the pillars taper slightly at the upper ends.
• Cushion capitals with an open flower abacus uphold the bracket.
Ladh Khan Temple
Lad Khan Temple
 The Durga Temple
• The Durga Temple, Aihole, apsidal in plan like a Chaitya, stands on a well
moulded high adishthana adorned with a frieze of dwarfs.
• The plan of the temple includes-Mukha Mandapa-Sabha Mandapa-Garbha
Griha with a Pradakshinapatha all around it.
• The decorated square pillars on the adhishthana make a passage in the outer side
of the mandapa walls.
• The shikhara over the garbhagriha is pyramidal.
• The temple facing east is approached by two flights of steps leading towards
portico.
• the ceiling of the mukh mandapa is supported by four square pillars which leads
towards sabha mandapa which is divided in central naïve and two side aisles by
two rows of pillars.
• The flat roof over the naïve is higher than the sloping roofs over the aisles.
• The niches enclosing bold sculptures adorn the walls of the sabha mandapa and
garbhagriha.
• The name durga of the temple is because it was the part of a fortification (durga).
The Durga Temple
The Durga Temple
The Durga Temple:Plan
 Huchchimalli-gudi Temple
• The significant feature of the temple is the appearance of the antarala
for the first time by constructing a stone wall between the pillars of
sabha mandapa and garbhagriha.
• The plan of the temple is-Mukha Mandapa-Sabha Mandapa-
Antarala-Garbhagriha having a Pradakshinapatha.
• The shikhara was added later.
• The kakashasanas on both sides of the portico have an exceptionally
elegant ghata pallava (vase and foliage) design.
Huchchimalli-gudi Temple
 Meguti Temple
• One of the earliest dated monuments of India as it bears a prashasti
inscribed on a slab on its eastern wall dated c. 634 CE.
• The principal part of the building, square in plan, resembles a closed
mandapa.
• The garbhagriha is formed of four central pillars.
• The mukhamandapa precedes the mandapa.
• The temple is built on a high adhishthana.
Meguti Temple
Meguti Temple
 Temples at Badami
• Badami, also known as Vatapi was the second capital of early Chalukyas.
• Here are found the earliest examples of the Vimana temples of the Western Chalukyas namely the
upper Shivalya (on the hills), the lower Shivalaya and the Malegitti Shivalaya on the outer crag of
the Badami hills.
• The Upper Shivalaya, now ruined, when intact was a sandhara vimana having a pillared mandapa.
• The exterior walls of the mandapa had pilasters and recesses. The kudus decorate the chajja
(eaves).
• The Lower Shivalaya is also a sandhara temple.
• All the talas of the vimana have the hara elements, while the octagonal griva and shikhara have
kutas.
• The Malegitti Shivalaya temple unlike the Upper Shivalaya and Lower Shivalaya temples is a
Nirandhara vimana which shares a common moulded base with the closed mandapa in front of it.
• An open four-pillared porch precedes it.
• The hara of the lowest tala (storey) of the vimana has karanakutas and shalas and extends over the
mandapa.
• Nasikas adorn the four cardinal faces of the griva.
• A heavy dome covers the octagonal shikhara.
 Mahakuteshvara Temple
• A typical early temple of the Chalukyas on the outskirts of Badami.
• Here is a group of nagara (prasada) and dravida (vimana) style
temples.
• The main temple in this group is the Mahakuteshvara temple. It is a
sandhara vimana.
• The temple stands on elaborately carved high adhishthana.
• The plan of the temple is-Nandi Mandapa-Mukh Mandapa-
Mandapa-Garbhagriha surrounded by Pradakshinapatha.
• Two sets of pilasters, flanking niches with sculpture, enrich the
temple.
Mahakuteshvara Temple
 Sangameshvara Temple

• It is a nagara style temple in

the enclosure. It is close to
Mahakuteshvara temple.
• It has a portico leading
towards garbhagriha which
carries a massive stumpy
shikhara.
 Temples at Pattadakal

• Pattadakal was the third capital of the

Chalukyas which is about 16 km
from Badami.
• It represents the final stage of the
Chalukyan temple architecture.
• It too possesses northern and
southern style temples.
• The four major temples here are the
Papanath, Sangameshvara,
Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna.
 The Papanath Temple
• One of the earliest temples at
Pattadakal dated to the last quarter of
the seventh century CE.
• The temple lacks symmetry in
elevation as well as in plan. The
shikhara at the eastern end of the
building is too short and under-sized
for such a long and low building.
• The antrala in front of the
garbhagriha is too big that it appears
like a pillared mandapa.
• The interior of the temple still bears
the influence of rock cut architecture.
• The decoration of the exterior is not
too elaborate.
 Sangameshvara temple
• The earliest temple at Pattadakal in the Dravidian style.
• It is square from base to shikhara.
• It is a sandhara type having three storeys.
• The plan of the temple is-Ardha Mandapa-Maha Mandapa-Antrala-
Garbhagriha surrounded by Pradakshinapatha.
• The northern side of the maha mandapa has a pillared vestibule.
• A series of niches on the exterior wall contain sculpted figures, while the recesses
in between are filled with pierced stone screen.
• The prastara over the outer wall of the vimana carries a hara of karna kutas and
shalas.
• The third storey has only shalas over the middle of four sides. The absence of the
karna kutas marks the first step towards replacing the hara itself by the lanchanas
or vahanas.
• Two cellas at the two ends of the ardha mandapa. dedicated to Durga and
Ganesha is a special feature of the Sangameshvara temple.
Sangameshvara Temple at Pattadakal
 Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna Temples
• Both are identical except their size, i.e., Virupaksha temple is bigger
than Mallikarjuna temple.
• Both of them were built two queens of Vikramaditya II around 740 CE
in commemoration to the latter’s victory over the Pallavas.
• Their earlier names were Lokeshvara and Trailokeshvara.
• In plan both of these consist of a garbhagriha surrounded by a
Pradakshinapatha which opens into a large pillared Mandapa which
has three entrances.
• A Nandi Shrine stands in front of both temples and an enclosure wall
surrounds each of them.
• The enclosure walls of these two temples interlock by a diagonal
arrangement which is a unique in Indian temple architecture.
 The Virupaksha Temple
• Virupaksha temple has a tall vimana.
• It is a sandhara type temple square in plan from base to shikhara rising in
four storeys.
• On all sides, except the western, porches lead to the multi-pillared hall.
• Over the parapet at the rear of each porch rises an embryonic gopuram,
which resembles an additional storey over the entrances to the mandapa.
• From the third storey of the vimana projects the shukanasika.
• Sculptural decorations, perfectly blended with the architecture, relieve the
heavy solidity of the structure.
• Perforated windows alternate with niches.
• The canopy of the latter, consists of a chaitya arch.
• One or two pilasters separate the niches from the windows.
• The kutas and shalas on the coping of the compound wall of the temple
complex bear resemblance to the Shore temple at Mamallapuram.
The Virupaksha Temple
The Virupaksha Temple
 The Mallikarjuna Temple

• In the Mallikarjuna Temple the haras have been completely

left out on the fourth storey of the vimana.
• From the second, third and fourth storey project sukanasikas.
• The wall fillings of the Mallikarjuna temple have triple
pilasters.
• Though smaller in size than the Virupaksha, the Mallikarjuna
temple shows greater stylistic progress relative to the
Virupaksha, especially in the finely carved windows which
alternate with sculptured panels, and its interior carving
seems to be the most advanced in Early Western Chalukyan
art.
The Mallikarjuna Temple
The Mallikarjuna Temple
 Temples under the Later Western Chalukyas
• This architecture style reached at maturity in 11th to 13th century at the northern boundary of Mysore in the
upper valleys of the Tungabhadra, Bhima and the Krishna rivers.
• All these temples are rectangular and have no pradakshinapatha.
• The adhishthana, instead extends far beyond the walls to provide a processional path around the whole
structure.
• The main entrance is at the side rather than the front.
• On the eastern side another cella, shrine or pillared portico was added on.
• These temples, outstanding for decoration, continue a tradition begun at Pattadakal.
• The pillars here are more slender and better spaced. They alternate with buttress-like half-pillars which
harmonize in design with the pillars in the open hall in front.
• At suitable spaces there are ornamental shrines or niches overshadowed by wide eaves and a canopy which
echoes the form of the shikhara.
• Elaborate decoration at the suitable spaces is the specific feature of these temples.
• The doorways are specially contrived to focus attention on the shrine.
• The Jain temple at Lakkundi near Gadag, Mukuteshvara temple at Chaudadampur, the Kashivishveshvara
temple at Lakkundi, the Mahadeva temple at Ittagi, the Mallikarjuna temple at Kuruvatti, the Somesvara
temple at Gadag and the Dodda Bassapa at Dambal are some fine examples of this architectural style of the
temples.
The Jain Temple at Lakkundi and Mahakuteshvara temple at Chaudadampur

• Lakkundi became the Hoyasalacapital in 1193.

• The Jain temple is made of softer chloritic schist.
• Dates from mid 11th century CE.
• It has five storeys, square from base to shikhara.
• The navataranga has a square bay at the centre, flanked by eight smaller
ones.
• A sukhnasika projects in front; and tall nasika fronts between pairs of
slender pilasters, adorn the walls.
• A wide eave, sometime straight but often double-curved and projecting far
out, makes the first appearance by the end of the 11th century CE.
• The Mahakuteshvara temple at Chaudadampur is the example of such eave.
• Here this new type of eave is found with a more mature form of shikhara,
with profuse sculptural ornamentation obscures the outlines of the storey.
The Jain Temple at Lakkundi and Mahakuteshvara temple at Chaudadampur

Jain Temple Mahakuteshvara Temple

 Kashivisveshvara Temple at Lakkundi
• The temple has a shrine at both ends and tower over each.
• Near the centre of its layout is an open court, with different
compartments extending axially on both sides.
• The plan consists of four squares of different sizes aligned together.
• In places the pillars are embossed with intricate designs.
• A large prominent niche with a canopy in the middle of each side is a
striking feature.
• The doorways bear refined carving while the vimana bears bold
decoration.
Kashivisveshvara Temple at Lakkundi
 Mahadeva Temple at Ittagi
• An example of harmonious beauty.
• The various parts are grouped simply and appropriately, with pleasing
proportions.
• The decoration shows balance and order.
• The gently curving has no storeys rather tiers covered completely with
sculptures.
• The ceiling of the mandapa is coffered with delicate figures and scroll
of foliage.
• The pair of rectangular recesses on each wall of the navataranga have
a kind of table and pedestal.
• A round niche is on the front of the tower.
Mahadeva Temple at Ittagi
 The Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti

• Has a symmetrical plan

and complete shikhara.
• Decoration is not too
heavy.
• The torana at the entrance
to the vestibule of the
sanctuary has a heavy
lintel on a pair of free-
standing pillars, all with
elaborate carvings.
• The sculpture on the
brackets of the upper
portion of the pillars is
more delicate.
 The Someshvara Temple at Gadag

• It differs in the decoration of walls from the Dravidian tradition.

• The beginning of the sculpture in the niches at the centre of the exterior walls.
• This new decoration replaces the pilasters around the temple, but the decoration tends to confusion and loss of vitality, showing decline.
 Dodda Basappa at Dambal
• Belongs to the 12th century.
• Star shaped temple (only one in the
region) like those of Hoysala temples.
• The star plan continues to the top of the
structure, giving the temple an unusual
appearance of projecting angles with a
sharp light-and-shade effect.
• This impression of strength, given by
the vertical angels, gets lost when the
verticals begin to intersect with the
horizontal string-course of the shikhara,
for the pattern becomes too minute for
architectural effect.
• The fluted pillars of the porch
harmonize with the angularity of the
building, but the consistency seems to
be exaggerated.
• In the offsets of the vimana, however,
forms alternate with designs and design
with forms, gracefully tapering so that
the whole resembles walls with tracery
or buttresses with panels.
 The Hoysala Temples
• Hoysalas defeated the Chalukyas in 11th century CE and established their rule in Mysore
which lasted for more than two centuries and erected more than hundred temples.
• Temples are made of fine grained and close-textured greenish-grey chloride schist as it is
more easier to work than sandstone as it is softer.
• The Hoysala temples consist three parts: the Vimana (containing the garbhagriha), the
Shukhnasika (antarala) and the Navaranga (mandapa) having a Mukh Mandapa (an
open pillared pavilion) in front of it.
• The navaranga is divided into two main zones, namely the adishthana and the pillared
mandapa.
• The vimana has three main zones-the adhishthana mouldings, the vimana wall surface
with statue decorations and the shikhara.
• The plan of the temple is usually ashtabadra (star shaped) obtained by a number of rotated
squares.
• Sometimes three vimanas, each fronted by their antaralas, group around the same
navaranga instead of single one.
• Such temple is called trikutachala. Many Hoyasala temple are double, triple, quadruple
and even quintuple with all their parts duplicated.
 The Hoysala Temples
• Usually stand in an enclosure.
• The surrounding walls frequently have cellas with a pillared verandah in front.
• the decoration of the wall surface run in horizontal bands.
• The high upapitha (platform) on which the temple stands harmonizes with the
buildings in shape but is much wider, providing a terrace all around for
circambulation. It serves as an open pradakshina patha.
• The elevated adhishthana of the hoysala temple has lively bands of running
designs all around the whole building.
• The lowest band generally has a procession of elephants to give the impression of
stability and strength.
• A band of horsemen just above may signify speed.
• A strip with spiraling foliage separates the horsemen from a frieze hving vividly
detailed scenes from the epics.
• The next strip has yalis (scaly monsters similarto a hippopotamus or hippogryphs)
with spiraling creepers coming out of them.
• Finally on the top band appear hansas (goose like birds).
• Above the decorative moulded adhishthana are kakashasanas (sloping seat backs).
 The Hoysala Temples
• The second zone of the navataranga is the pillared hall (closed mandapa).
• Initially it was an open mandapa but with the addition of pierced stone screens it became a closed mandapa.
• The pillars at the base are square. Most of them have a bell like portion at the lower end of the shaft.
• They reveal an early type of production.
• A sloping strut like bracket, attached to the capital by sockets, has well finished mandankai figures (figures
with halos of leaves).
• The carved adhishthana continues around the vimana.
• The walls of the vimana are sharply dentated-the alternately recessed and projected angles forming a patternof
light and shade.
• Each surface has the sculpted figure of a deity surrounded by foliage which serves as a niche with a
superstructure above.
• The crowning shikhara is a unique feature of the Hoysala style.
• A wide eave jutting far out separates it from the vimana wall yet the star shape continues up, resulting in a
fluted appearance all the way up the vimana elevation.
• Balanced by horizontal mouldings, these vertical lines produce an orderly arrangement of diminishing tiers,
crowned at the top by an umbrella like finial.
• Small shrines and niches decorate the spaces between the horizontal and vertical lines, forming abeautiful
texture from the sculptural point of view.
 The Chenna Keshave Temple
• At Belur in the Hassan district, was built in 1117 CE by king Vishnuvardhana.
• Known for the lavish carvings (placing of the sculptures on the exterior and
ornamentation of adhishthana).
• Ten of the twenty grilles between the pillars of the mandapa have lively sculpted
figures illustrating the Puranic stories.
• In the interior the cruciform aisles crossing in the middle produce a central nave.
• The pillars huddle too close together and there is too much carving.
• All the pillars except the four in the centre have different designs, producing
variety and complexity as if each were produced by a separate team as a distinct
masterpiece.
• One of these, called the Narasimha pillar, has a repeated design of niches with an
image in every one.
• The temple looks overcrowded and lacks a sense of spaciousness, repose and
control. The superstructure of the temple is missing.
The Chenna Keshave Temple
 The Hoysaleshvara Temple
• At Halebid constructed between 1120-1182 CE.
• Profuse sculptural adornment. Each side intricately carved.
• The Shikhara is missing.
• The plan consists of two cruciform vimanas connected to each other by their
transepts.
• Repeated angles and projections break up the exterior, where contrast is
obtained by the different form of the stellate vimana and the surface of the
navaranga.
• Richly attired huge dvarapalas stand on the either side of the doorways.
• Mythological scenes are depicted on the lintel.
• The temple represents a climax of lavish sculpture and of systematized
confusion.
The Hoysaleshvara Temple
 Keshava Temple at Somnathpur
• Built in 1268 CE in Mysore district.
• Stands in the middle of the courtyard.
• Plan is trikutachala (three shrined) type.
• main shrine facing east, other two north and south.
• Each cella consists a garbhgriha and sukhnasika (vestibule).
• Chief shrine once contained the image of Keshava. Now lost.
• Three elegantly carved shikharas identical in design and execution,
surmount the three cellas.
• These, together with their towers, as well as the mukha mandapa
adjoin the navaranga.
Keshava Temple at Somnathpur
 The Pallava Temples
• Narasimha-varman II Rajasimha (700-728) began the structural architecture.
• Experiments with different kinds of stones:
Grey-white granite in Olakkaneshvara temple at Mamallapuram.
Blakish leptinite in the Shore temple at Mamallapuram.
Hard red-or pinkish gnesis in the Mukundanayanar temple at Mamallapuram.
Hard red-or pinkish gnesis in the Talagirishvara temple at Panamalai.
• These temples were made of hard rocks hence time consuming. Shifted to inferior
soft local sandstone.
• The shore temple at Mamallapuram constructed out of the hard, blachish leptinite,
comprisses three shrines as wellas the prakara and the gopuram.
• The Ksatriyasimhesvara, the large vimana in front of the seaward side, faces east
while the smaller Rajasimhesvara at the rear faces westward. Both of these are
dedicated to Siva.
• The Narapatisimhapallava Visnugriha a mandapa shrine with a reclining Vishnu,
stands between the two vimanas. It has no superstructure.all the names of these
shrines represent Rajasimha’s varios titles.
 Shore Temple at Mamallapuram
• Constructed out of the hard, blakish leptinite.
• Comprises three shrines, i.e., Rajasimheshvara, Kshatriyasimheshvara, and Narapatisimhapallava Vishnugriha as well as the prakara and the gopuram.
1. The Rajasimheshvara vimana at the rear facing west, has a square plan but the griva and shikhara have eight sides.
• The topmost of the three storeys lacks the hara elements, but four bhuta (goblins) take their place.
• The stupi is built of polished black basalt.
• Lions at the base of the pilasters on the walls of the sanctuary and ardha mandapa are typical to Rajasimha temples.
2. The Kshatriyasimheshvara, the large Vimana having four storeys, in front on the seaward side, facing east, is also square in plan.
• The griva and shikhara are octagonal crowned by a polished basalt finial.
• The second and third storey of the vimana have a hara of kutas and shalas, while the four squatting bhutas blow conches on the topmost storey.
• Four crouching lions adorn the top corners of the aditala (first storey).
• A very close-set prakara, much lower than the wall of the sanctuary, gives the appearance of an additional storey when viewed from outside.
• Kutas adorn the four corners of this prakara, with shalas in between.
• A series of nandis sit on the coping or parapet.
• The central shala on the side facing the sea is much larger and looks like a miniature gopuram.
• Both these sshrines contain a relief panel of Somaskanda on the rear wall of the sanctuary.
• The Kshatriyasimheshvara has sixteen-sided linga of polished basalt, inserted directly on the floor without a pedestal.
• The exterior walls of the garbhagriha have pilsters with rearing lions at the base. Likewise the pilasters on the inside of closely built prakara have nagas,
ram and other bases.
• A figure of Durga riding a lion appears at the northern side of the temple facing west.
• The sculptures of these shrines have greatly been eroded by the salty sea wind.
3. The Narapatisimhapallava Vishnugriha shrine is a mandapa shrine with a reclining Vishnu stands between the two vimanas. It has no superstructure.
Shore Temple at Mamallapuram
Shore Temple at Mamallapuram
 Kailashanatha Temple
• Constructed by Rajasimha and his son Mahendravarman III.
• Made of local sandstone.
• The main vimana has four storeys.
• The plan is square but the griva and sikhara have eight sides.
• The double walls of the shrine provide a circambulatory passage in between.
• It has two-storeyed oblong shrine joined to the middle of each side of the main
one. In addition it has two storeyed square one at each of the corners as well.
• While the corner shrines have kuta shikharas, those at the sides have shala
shikharas.
• The passage on the eastern side serves as an antarala to the sanctuary.
• Somaskanda relief panel on the rear wall of the main sanctuary.
• A large fluted linga on the floor.
• The inner walls have no sculptures and those parts of exterior wall visible between
the adjoining shrines have profuse carvings of various gods and goddesses.
 Kailashanatha Temple
• The first and third talas of the vinama have only kutas and shalas. The hara of the second
one has panjaras as well.
• Nandis adorn the four corners of the top storey.
• The exterior walls of the vimana and shrines have the usual pilasters with rear vyala at the
base, so characteristic of Rajasimha temples.
• In front of the main shrine stands an oblong independent multi-pillared mandapa.
• A later structure connects the shrine with the mandapa, detracting from the beauty of the
original design.
• A prakara surrounds the whole complex.
• On the eastern side, in front of the mandapa, is an oblong two-storeyed shala-type vimana
called Mahendravarmeshvara, with an ardha mandapa, giving it the appearance of a
gopuram when viewed from afar.
• No hara elements appear on either of the talas of this vimana. The main entrance on the
east is a gopuram with a shala superstructure.
• Along the inner side of the prakara extend a series of small dvitala vimanas.
• A rich variety of sculptures, both Shaivite and Vaishnavite, adorn the exterior.
• Granite was used only for the top and bottom courses of the adhishthana, while the rest of
the temple as built of sandstone.
Kailashanatha Temple
Kailashanatha Temple
 Vaikuntha Perumal Temple
• Erected by Nandi-Varman Pallavamalla (731-796 CE).
• Dedicated to Vishnu.
• Built of sandstone.
• Stands on well moulded adhishthana with granite for its top and basal courses.
• Square in its lower talas, the temple becomes octagonal in its griva and shikhara.
• Three walls one within the other surrounds the main shrine.
• The innermost wall rises to the height of the third storey, the intermediate to the second and the outermost to
the first tala.
• A pair of covered pradakshinapathas surround the ground floor.
• At the rear, the inner circumambulatory also provides access to the first storey.
• The outer prakara surrounding the whole temple has a pillared cloister raised on a platform. This provides the
another pradakshina patha.
• The prakara, carrying a hara scheme of kutas and shalas seems to add one more storey to its height when
viewed from outside.
• All the superimposed storeys contain a cella, each enshrining Vishnu.
• The first three storeys include the usual kutas, shalas and panjaras.
• Originally the fourth storey had four lions, now replaced by garudas.
• A series of paneled sculptures narrating the history of the Pallavas from their legendary ancestors down to
Nandivarman II Pallava- malla give a distinctive feature to this temple.
Vaikuntha Perumal Temple
Vaikuntha Perumal Temple
 The Chola Temples
• Cholas power reached its zenith in the 10th century under Rajaraja I.
• Two magnificent temples namely the Brihadeshvara temple at Tanjavur and second at Gangaikonda
Cholapuram were constructed by Rajaraja I (985-1014 CE) and his son Rajendra I (1012-1044 CE)
respectively.
• A number of earlier brick temples were renovated and a few new temples were constructed.
• Sculptural ornaments became more ornate and bold, advancing from bas-relief to figures almost in the round.
1. Sundareshvara temple at Tirukattalai built during the reign of Aditya I
in 873 CE is a typical example of the early Chola temple.
• Made of stone, it consists of a main square two storeyed vimana with the ardha-mandapa surrounded by the
ashtaparivaralaya (eight sub-shrines).
• A prakara with a gopuram on the eastern side encloses the whole.
2. Vijayalaya Choleshvaram at Narttamalai named after Chola emperor Vijayalaya.
• The shrine has an unusual plan, a circular chamber surrounded by a square pradakshina patha.
• It has the usual pillared mandapa, the storeyed vimana, the exterior-walls of the mandapa relieved by
pilasters and recesses, and the mandapa carrying a hara in continuation of the aditala hara.
The Chola Temples: Sundareshvara temple at Tirukattalai
Vijayalaya Choleshvaram at Narttamalai
 The Koranganatha Temple at Srinvasanallur
• Built during the time of Prantaka I.
• Marks a transition from Pallava to Chola style.
• The plan consists a cella and mandapa.
• The exterior walls have been greatly simplified and
not encumbered with details.
• Some new features make appearance in this temple.
• Yali type of pillars have gone.
• The padmabandham and kalasha, now more ornate
appear in the capital, and the phalaka (abacus) is
very much extended.
• Pilasters divide the exterior of the walls into niches
containing some excellent relief sculpture.
• The adhishthana has a row of griffins.
The Koranganatha Temple at Srinvasanallur
 The Brihadeshvara Temple at Tanjavur
• Constructed during the time of Rajaraja I.
• Constructed out of large granite rocks from neighbourhood.
• It has the loftiest vimana rising to the height of 66 metre and standing on a base 30metre2.
• The plan of the temple is-Garbhgriha-Antrala (with flight of steps on northern and southern side)-Maha Mandapa.
• The maha mandapa has an entrance on the east with a central nave and two raised aisels.
• The whole temple rests on a old ornate basement, covered all over with inscriptions.
• The detached nandi mandapa containing large monolithic bull on a pedestal is however a later
addition.
• A prominent moulding divides the lower part of the vimana wall into two storeys.
• Pilasters and niches containing statues decorate the exterior walls of each storey.
• Between the regular pilasters are decorative pilasters, an early form of the kumbha-panjaras.
• A two storeyed pradakshina patha separates the outer wall of the vimana from the inner wall of the
garbhagriha. The latter, also two-storeyed, encloses a colossal linga standing on a large pedestal.
• A door in the centre of the north, south and west walls of both storeys of the vimana leads to the
pradakshina patha. These with the larger openings on the east, make it a chaturmukha, i.e., a
sanctuary having entrances on all the four sides.
• In the middle of the exterior face of the inner wall of garbha griha are life size statues of the seated
Shiva on the south and Devi on the north. They overlook the lower ambulatory.
 The Brihadeshvara Temple at Tanjavur
• The famous Chola fresco, a fine gallery with great artistic merit and iconographic interest, cover the rest of the walls.
• Besides sculpture and painting, long and well-inscribed epigraphs provide interesting information about the history
of the temple.
• The upper passage contains a series of hundred and eight sculpted panels on its inner walls, all finished with relief
sculpture except the last twenty-seven.
• Shiva is being depicted in various dance poses in accordance with the Natyashastra.
• The roof of the upper pradakshina patha is formed of the corbelling.
• Above this rises the vimana of sixteen successive storeyes (talas).
• Each tala carries a hara of kutas, shalas and panjaras.
• The topmost tala has nandi at each of four corners.
• The griva and the shikhara are octagonal.
• The shikhara stone weighing eighty tons, is said to have been hoisted to its present position by being dragged up on a
ramp which had its beginning four miles away.
• A compound wall surrounds the board open court. On its eastern side it has a wide but short all stone gopuram.
• Inside it is a continuous two storeyed cloister.
• In front of the gopuram stands a larger outer wall (Prakara).
• In addition to the inner gopuram on the east, three smaller entrances of the torana variety pierce the compound wall.
• The Chandikeshvara, a smaller vimana, adjoins the larger gargoylike water spout to the north of the main vimana.
• The other structures within the court, such as the Amman shrine and the Ganesha and Subramanya temple, belong to
later periods.
The Brihadeshvara Temple at Tanjavur
The Brihadeshvara Temple at Tanjavur
The Brihadeshvara Temple at Tanjavur
 The Brihadeshvara Temple at Gangaikondacholapuram
• Built by Rajendra I (1012-44) in new capital Gangaikondacholapuram.
• The temple, facing east, is enclosed with a massive prakara.
• The entire plan forms a rectangle. The main doorway at the east leads to an
assembly hall.
• A hundred and fifty slender pillars without much ornamentation support the
roof of this hall.
• This hall is the nucleus of the thousand-pillared mandapas-an important
feature in all large temple complexes of a later date.
• The vimana, though smaller and having few storeys, surpasses the great
Brihadeshvara in quality, fineness and variety of bold sculpture.
• It however does not has the decoration of paintings and representations of
dances.
• In contrast to the severely straight lines of the Tanjavur Vimana, its tapering
superstructure assumes a curved outline at the corners.
The Brihadeshvara Temple at Gangaikonda cholapuram
The Brihadeshvara Temple at Gangaikonda cholapuram
The Brihadeshvara Temple at Gangaikonda cholapuram
 Late Chola Temples: Airavateshvara and Kampahareshvara Temples
• Airavateshvara temple at Darasuram built by Rajaraja II, an all stone structure raises to five storeys.
• The pillared porch on the south simulates a wheeled chariot drawn by elephants.
• The temple has elaborate and effusive scriptural embellishment in the round and miniature narrative panels in relief.
• Black polished basalt-like stone, a new medium, was used for the large sculptures.
• Kampahareshvara temple at Tiribhuvanam built by Kullotunga III closely resembles the Airavateshvara temple.
• Amman shrine or Tirukkamakottam dedicated to Devi, consort of principal god (Shiva, Vishnu etc.) is a new significant addition in these and
temples of subsequent periods.
• The gopuram also assumed a dominant role, either singly or in a series. It became a major feature of the southern temples.

Plan of Airavateshvara Temple

Late Chola Temples: Airavateshvara and Kampahareshvara Temples

Airavateshvara Kampahareshvara